historic resource study
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DEC 0 5 1990
CLEMSON
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NATIONAL PARK • NEVADA
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Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2012 with funding from
LYRASIS Members and Sloan Foundation
http://archive.org/details/historicresourceOOunra
BASIN AND RANGE:
A HISTORY OF GREAT BASIN NATIONAL PARK
NEVADA
by
Harlan D. Unrau
HISTORIC RESOURCE STUDY
U.S. Department of the Interior / National Park Service
1990
CONTENTS
PREFACE ix
INTRODUCTION xi
THE GREAT BASIN xi
GREAT BASIN NATIONAL PARK xiii
Geographic Location xiii
Purpose xiii
Significance xiii
CHAPTER ONE, OVERVIEW OF PREHISTORY OF GREAT BASIN NATIONAL
PARK 1
CHAPTER TWO, DISCOVERY AND EARLY EXPLORATION OF THE GREAT BASIN:
1776 - 1850s 5
INTRODUCTION 5
SPANISH PENETRATION 5
FUR TRADERS AND TRAPPERS 8
WESTWARD TRAILS AND EXPANSION 13
Old Spanish Trail 13
Emigrant Trails to California 16
Early Exploration Surveys 18
CHAPTER THREE, MORMON EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT DURING THE
1850s 25
CHAPTER FOUR, EXPLORATION AND SURVEYS FOR TRANSPORTATION AND
COMMUNICATION LINES ACROSS THE CENTRAL ROUTE OF THE GREAT
BASIN DURING THE 1850s 35
INTRODUCTION 35
SURVEYS FOR A CENTRAL TRANSCONTINENTAL RAILROAD ROUTE:
1853-1854 35
TRAVERSE FOR A CENTRAL ROUTE TRAIL BY HOWARD R. EGAN:
1855 37
SURVEY FOR MILITARY WAGON ROAD ACROSS THE CENTRAL ROUTE BY
JAMES H. SIMPSON: 1859 38
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION LINES ACROSS THE CENTRAL
ROUTE: 1859-1869 47
CHAPTER FIVE, SCIENTIFIC AND GOVERNMENT SURVEYS OF THE GREAT
BASIN: 1860s - 1890s 51
INTRODUCTION 51
GEORGE M. WHEELER SURVEYS 51
A JOHN MUIR SURVEY OF THE SNAKE RANGE 59
U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY TRIANGULATION STATION ON
WHEELER PEAK 61
CHAPTER SIX, MINING DEVELOPMENT IN THE SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE .... 75
INTRODUCTION 75
WHITE PINE MINING RUSH 77
SNAKE (BONITA) MINING DISTRICT 85
Location 85
History 85
iii
SHOSHONE (MINERVA, LEXINGTON, TUNGSTEN) MINING DISTRICT .... 89
Location 89
History 89
MOUNT WASHINGTON (LINCOLN) MINING DISTRICT 98
Location 98
History 98
OSCEOLA (WEAVER CREEK, SUMMIT DIGGINGS, HOGUM, WILLARD
CREEK) MINING DISTRICT 113
Location 113
History 114
TUNGSTEN (HUB, LINCOLN, SHOSHONE) MINING DISTRICT 144
Location 144
History 144
LEXINGTON (LEXINGTON CANYON, SHOSHONE) MINING DISTRICT .... 152
Location 152
History 152
CHAPTER SEVEN, RANCHING AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN SNAKE
AND SPRING VALLEYS 155
INTRODUCTION 155
AGRICULTURAL AND RANCHING DEVELOPMENT IN NEVADA: 1850s -
1900s 155
AGRICULTURAL AND RANCHING DEVELOPMENT IN WHITE PINE COUNTY
AND SNAKE AND SPRING VALLEYS: 1860s-1970s 161
EARLY SETTLERS AND RANCHING OPERATIONS IN SNAKE VALLEY ... 178
Samuel Hockman 178
Absalom S. Lehman 178
Willard Burbank 185
George W. Baker 186
Elwin W. Clay 195
Jonas Woodward 195
Other Early Snake Valley Settlers 197
EARLY SETTLERS AND RANCHING OPERATIONS IN SPRING VALLEY . . 198
CHAPTER EIGHT, POLITICAL, SOCIOECONOMIC, TRANSPORTATION,
COMMUNICATIONS, AND LUMBER INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT IN SNAKE
AND SPRING VALLEYS 201
INTRODUCTION 201
ESTABLISHMENT OF WHITE PINE COUNTY 201
POPULATION TRENDS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WHITE PINE
COUNTY 203
ECONOMIC TRENDS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WHITE PINE COUNTY 204
SETTLEMENT OF COMMUNITIES IN SNAKE VALLEY 205
Burbank 205
Baker 206
Garrison 207
Home Farm 207
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION DEVELOPMENT IN SNAKE AND
SPRING VALLEYS 208
Roads 208
Railroads 209
Aircraft 210
Newspapers 210
Mail 212
Electricity 214
IV
DEVELOPMENT OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE SNAKE RANGE 214
CHAPTER NINE, EUROAMERICAN AND NATIVE AMERICAN RELATIONSHIPS IN
NEVADA: 1850s-1910s 219
INTRODUCTION 219
EARLY EUROAMERICAN AND NATIVE AMERICAN INTERACTION IN NEVADA
PRIOR TO THE EARLY 1860s 219
TREATIES WITH GREAT BASIN NATIVE AMERICANS DURING THE 1860s 222
EUROAMERICAN AND NATIVE AMERICAN RELATIONSHIPS IN SNAKE AND
SPRING VALLEYS 225
CHAPTER TEN, ADMINISTRATION OF THE SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE BY THE
U.S. FOREST SERVICE: 1909-1986 231
INTRODUCTION 231
ESTABLISHMENT OF NATIONAL FORESTS AND U.S. FOREST SERVICE . 231
U.S. FOREST SERVICE SURVEYS IN CENTRAL EASTERN NEVADA AND
ESTABLISHMENT OF NEVADA NATIONAL FOREST 236
BOUNDARY ADJUSTMENTS TO NEVADA NATIONAL FOREST: 1912-
1919 241
U.S. FOREST SERVICE ADMINISTRATIVE DEVELOPMENT IN THE
SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE 248
U.S. FOREST SERVICE REVEGETATION EFFORTS IN THE SOUTHERN
SNAKE RANGE 255
U.S. FOREST SERVICE TIMBER UTILIZATION AND PRESERVATION
POLICIES IN THE SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE 259
U.S. FOREST SERVICE WILDLIFE AND FISH MANAGEMENT POLICIES IN
THE SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE 263
U.S. FOREST SERVICE RECREATIONAL DEVELOPMENT POLICIES IN THE
SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE 275
U.S. FOREST SERVICE GRAZING MANAGEMENT POLICIES IN THE
SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE 288
U.S. FOREST SERVICE MINING POLICIES IN THE SOUTHERN SNAKE
RANGE 311
U.S. FOREST SERVICE ARCHEOLOGICAL RESEARCH ACTIVITIES IN THE
SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE 313
U.S. FOREST SERVICE SPELEOLOGICAL RESEARCH ACTIVITIES IN THE
SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE 318
CHAPTER ELEVEN, ADMINISTRATION OF LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL MONUMENT:
1922-1986 321
INTRODUCTION 321
OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LEHMAN CAVES UNTIL NATIONAL
MONUMENT DESIGNATION IN 1922 321
CAMPAIGN TO HAVE LEHMAN CAVES DESIGNATED A NATIONAL
MONUMENT 323
ESTABLISHMENT OF LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL MONUMENT 329
ADMINISTRATION OF LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL MONUMENT UNDER THE
U.S. FOREST SERVICE: 1922-1933 330
U.S. FOREST SERVICE PLANS FOR LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL
MONUMENT: 1930-1933 ' 341
TRANSFER OF ADMINISTRATION OF LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL
MONUMENT FROM THE U.S. FOREST SERVICE TO THE NATIONAL
PARK SERVICE: 1933 346
CONTINUING FRICTION BETWEEN THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE AND
THE U.S. FOREST SERVICE OVER ADMINISTRATION OF LEHMAN
CAVES 351
MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION OF LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL
MONUMENT: 1965-1986 357
CHAPTER TWELVE, HISTORY OF THE MOVEMENT TO ESTABLISH GREAT BASIN
NATIONAL PARK 367
INTRODUCTION 367
EFFORTS TO ENLARGE THE LEHMAN CAVES-WHEELER PEAK AREA INTO
A NATIONAL PARK AND STATE RECREATIONAL GROUND DURING
THE 1920s 367
MOVEMENT RESULTING IN ESTABLISHMENT OF GREAT BASIN NATIONAL
PARK: 1955-1986 376
CHAPTER THIRTEEN, DESCRIPTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
MANAGEMENT AND INTERPRETATION OF HISTORIC SITES 421
INTRODUCTION 421
HISTORIC SITES WITHIN PARK 421
Lehman Orchard (1) 421
Lehman Aqueduct (2) 424
Rhodes Cabin (3) 427
Wheeler Peak Triangulation Station (4) 429
Osceola (East) Ditch (5) 430
Stella Lake Rock Dam (6) 438
Baker Lake Cabin (Peter Dieshman Cabin) (7) 440
Tilford Spring Cabin (8) 442
Shoshone Trail (9) 444
Johnson Mill (10) 446
Johnson Mine (11-11A-11B) 449
St. Lawrence "East" (12) 457
St. Lawrence "South" (13) 459
Shoshone Trail Log Structure Remnants (14) 462
Pole Canyon Adit-East (15) 463
Ponderosa Mine (16) 464
South Fork of Big Wash Sawmill (17) 466
Safe (18) 467
Dugout (19) 469
Wagon Remnants Along Baker Lake Trail (20) 471
Young Canyon Stone House (21) 473
Lincoln Canyon Mine/Tunnel (22) 475
Bonita Mine (23) 478
Chapman-Taylor Mine (24) 482
Wagon Remnants Along Timber Creek Trail (25) 483
Robison's Corral (26) 484
SIGNIFICANT MINES AND MINING-RELATED SITES OUTSIDE BUT NEAR
PARK BOUNDARIES 485
Hub Mine 485
Mount Wheeler Mine 490
St. Lawrence Mine 494
St. Lawrence "West" 502
EPILOGUE 505
VI
APPENDIX A, JOHN C. FREMONT'S OBSERVATIONS ON THE GREAT BASIN
WRITTEN AT UTAH LAKE ON MAY 24, 1844 509
APPENDIX B, GEOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR UPON UPPER CALIFORNIA IN
ILLUSTRATION OF HIS MAP OF OREGON AND CALIFORNIA BY JOHN C.
FREMONT (WASHINGTON, 1848) 513
APPENDIX C, REMINISCENCES OF WHITE MOUNTAIN EXPEDITION IN
AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF GEORGE WASHINGTON BEAN 521
APPENDIX D, CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF GREAT BASIN AS DESCRIBED BY
JAMES H. SIMPSON IN HIS THE SHORTEST ROUTE TO CALIFORNIA (1869),
PAGES 35-55 523
APPENDIX E, OBSERVATIONS ON NEVADA INDIAN TRIBES BY GEORGE M.
WHEELER IN 1869 535
APPENDIX F, EXCERPTS OF GEOLOGICAL DATA ON THE SNAKE MOUNTAINS
GATHERED BY THE WHEELER SURVEYS 539
APPENDIX G, REPORT ON TRANSIT OF VENUS BY WILLIAM EIMBECK, U.S.
COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, DECEMBER 6, 1882 543
APPENDIX H, EXAMINATIONS OF WHEELER PEAK TRIANGULATION SITE BY U.S.
COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY PERSONNEL IN 1925, 1944, AND 1957 547
APPENDIX I, LAWS OF WHITE PINE MINING DISTRICT OCTOBER 10, 1865 ... 551
APPENDIX J, ROLE OF CHINESE IN CONSTRUCTION OF WEST AND EAST
DITCHES AT OSCEOLA 555
APPENDIX K, ENTRY FOR OSCEOLA GRAVEL MINING COMPANY IN ASSESSMENT
BOOK, WHITE PINE COUNTY, 1891 557
APPENDIX L, PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE TUNGSTEN MINING AND MILLING
COMPANY'S TUNGSTEN PROPERTY AT TUNGSTEN, NEVADA, MARCH 7,
1912 559
APPENDIX M, LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL MONUMENT, HISTORY OF WATER
RIGHTS 565
APPENDIX N, ENTRY FOR ABNER [ABSALOM] LEHMAN IN ASSESSMENT BOOK,
WHITE PINE COUNTY, 1891 569
APPENDIX O, TREATY WITH THE WESTERN SHOSHONES, NEVADA, 1863 ... . 571
APPENDIX P, NEVADA NATIONAL FOREST, FIRST PROCLAMATION 575
APPENDIX Q, NEVADA NATIONAL FOREST, SECOND PROCLAMATION 577
APPENDIX R, NEVADA NATIONAL FOREST, THIRD PROCLAMATION 581
APPENDIX S, HISTORY OF BIG WASH GRAZING ALLOTMENT TO 1939 585
APPENDIX T, HISTORY OF STRAWBERRY GRAZING ALLOTMENT TO 1939 ... 587
VII
APPENDIX U, HISTORY OF SWALLOW GRAZING ALLOTMENT TO 1939 591
APPENDIX V, HISTORY OF SHINGLE CREEK GRAZING ALLOTMENT TO 1939 . . 595
APPENDIX W, CATTLE SALTING PLAN, SNAKE DIVISION, NEVADA NATIONAL
FOREST, 1918 599
APPENDIX X, GRAZING PLANS FOR BONITA BASIN AND STRAWBERRY CREEK
DRAINAGE, 1927 603
APPENDIX Y, GRAZING ALLOTMENT DATA, SNAKE DIVISION, NEVADA NATIONAL
FOREST, 1938 607
APPENDIX Z, LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL MONUMENT, PROCLAMATION (NO.
1618), JANUARY 24, 1922 617
APPENDIX AA, AN ACT FOR THE PRESERVATION OF AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES,
APPROVED JUNE 8, 1906 (34 STAT. 225) 619
APPENDIX BB, MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES - LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL
MONUMENT, 1977 623
APPENDIX CC, PRIMARY THEMES FOR THE GREAT BASIN 627
APPENDIX DD, PUBLIC LAW 99-565, OCTOBER 27, 1986 (100 STAT. 3181) - ACT
ESTABLISHING GREAT BASIN NATIONAL PARK 629
APPENDIX EE, NATIONAL REGISTER NOMINATION FORM - OSCEOLA (EAST)
DITCH 633
APPENDIX FF, HISTORICAL BASE MAP 651
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 655
MANUSCRIPT SOURCES 655
NEWSPAPERS 660
MAPS 661
LEGISLATIVE DOCUMENTS 661
PUBLISHED WORKS 662
Books 662
Periodicals 670
Government Publications 673
THESES AND DISSERTATIONS 681
TECHNICAL REPORTS 682
INTERVIEWS 685
MISCELLANEOUS 687
LIST OF REPOSITORIES CONSULTED OR WHERE RESEARCH WAS
CONDUCTED 688
VIII
PREFACE
This historic resource study has been prepared to satisfy in part the research needs as
stated in the task directive (approved by Lew Albert, Acting Regional Director, Western
Region, in a memorandum dated March 25, 1988) concerning Great Basin National Park,
Historic Resource Study, under Package No. 165. The purpose of this study is the
collection, presentation, and evaluation of historical research data pertaining to the historic
events that occurred in the park and surrounding area and identification of historic
resources associated with those events. It is intended that the study will provide a data
base for the park's historic resources that will enable park administrators to formulate
appropriate management policies to preserve, protect, and interpret those resources.
A number of persons have assisted in the preparation of this report. My special thanks
extend to Park Superintendent Albert J. Hendricks, Chief Ranger Bruce Freet, and
Resource Management Specialist Mac Brock for helping me to understand the park
historical research needs and expectations for this study, making available the park data
files for research purposes, providing guidance for the location of historic resources in the
park, and making suggestions for persons to interview and repositories to consult during
my research. I also wish to extend my appreciation to Western Regional Director Stanley
T. Albright; Associate Regional Director, Resource Management and Planning John D.
Cherry; Chief, Park Historic Preservation Thomas D. Mulhern; and Regional Historian
Gordon Chappell for sharing their ideas on the nature of research and the scope of work
required for the project. The History Division in the National Park Service's Washington
Office, headed by Chief Historian Edwin C. Bearss, also provided direction and
encouragement for the project.
In addition, my thanks go to the staffs of the various repositories with whom I consulted
during research for this study. A list of these repositories may be seen at the end of this
study.
One of the unexpected benefits of undertaking this study was the opportunity to contact a
number of persons who have been involved in various historical endeavors in central
eastern Nevada or have been long-time residents in the park area. I am indebted to all
those who allowed me to interview them either in person or by telephone.
My thanks also go to John Latschar and Maurice L. Miller, both of whom were Section
Chiefs, Branch of Planning, Western Team, Denver Service Center during the course of this
project. These individuals provided encouragement and administrative oversight for the
project.
Harlan D. Unrau
June 1989
IX
INTRODUCTION
THE GREAT BASIN
The unique topography, climate, and drainage of a vast natural region of the western
United States combine to make the Basin and Range Province area one of the most
distinctive surface features of the North American continent. The term Basin and Range
Province is used by the scientific community to describe an expanse of some 200,000
square miles (500,000 square kilometers) stretching from the Sierra Nevada Range on the
west to the Wasatch Mountains on the east and from the Snake River Valley on the north
to the Colorado River drainage system on the south. The region, more commonly known
as the Great Basin, measures approximately 880 miles in length from north to south and
nearly 570 miles in width at its broadest part. The region lies between latitudes 34 and 42
degrees and encompasses the western half of Utah, the southwest corner of Wyoming, the
southeast corner of Idaho, a large portion of southeastern Oregon, part of Southern
California, and virtually all of Nevada.
Despite the implication of its name, however, the Great Basin is not a single cup-shaped
depression surrounded by mountains. Rather, it is comprised of a series of more than 90
basins separated from one another by more than 160 mountain ranges which have a
general north-south trend and vary in length from 30 to 120 miles and from 3 to 15 miles
in width. The valleys are generally wider than the ranges and are for the most part broad
desert plains or basins lying at altitudes varying from sea level or a little less in the
southwest to 4,000-5,000 feet in the north.
The mountain ranges have peaks commonly reaching above 9,000 feet above sea level,
and where this occurs they catch a moderate amount of precipitation and support various
species of tree and plant life. Some of the higher ranges have small permanent streams,
but many of these disappear underground when they reach the valleys. The Sierra Nevada
Range blocks much of the rain-bearing wind from the Pacific, forming a "rain shadow" over
the entire region, which has an average annual rainfall of ten inches or less and supports
little more than sparse desert or semidesert vegetation.
The Great Basin is particularly noted for its internal drainage system, whereby moisture
falling on the surface leads eventually to closed valleys and does not reach the sea. The
Humboldt River of northern Nevada, for instance, rises in ranges in the northeast part of
the state, drains a number of small valleys on its way westward, and ends in a closed
basin called the Humboldt Sink. Many of the smaller closed basins have their own interior
drainage by draining underground to adjacent, lower basins, and thus often contain
temporary playa lakes on the valley floors. These lakes generally hold water only during
the winter season and spring runoff from the ranges or after flash-flood storms. These
shallow sheets of water generally evaporate during the summer, leaving their beds a hard,
smooth alkali plain.
One of the best descriptions of the topographical features and scenic grandeur of the Great
Basin was written in 1885 by I.C. Russell, a professional geographer. Among other things,
he commented on the distinctive qualities of the region:
In the crossing from the Atlantic to the Pacific, between the Mexican boundary
and the central portion of Oregon, one finds a region, bounded by the Sierra
Nevada on the west and the Rocky Mountain system on the east, that stands
in marked contrast in nearly all its scenic features with the remaining portions
of the United States. The traveler in this region is no longer surrounded by the
open, grassy parks and heavily timbered mountains of the Pacific slope, or by
xi
the rounded and flowing outlines of the forest-crowned Appalachians, and the
scenery suggests naught of the boundless plains east of the Rocky Mountains
or of the rich savannas of the Gulf States. He must compare it rather to the
parched and desert areas of Arabia and the shores of the Dead Sea and the
Caspian.
The bare mountains reveal their structure almost at a glance, and show distinctly
the many varying tints of their naked rocks. Their richness of color is
sometimes marvelous, especially when they are composed of the purple
trachytes, the deep-colored rhyolites, and the many-hued volcanic tuffs so
common in western Nevada. Not unfrequently a range of volcanic mountains
will exhibit as many brilliant tints as are assumed by the New England hills in
autumn. On the desert valleys the scenery is monotonous in the extreme, yet
has a desolate grandeur of its own, and at times, especially at sunrise and at
sunset, great richness of color. At mid-day in summer the heat becomes
intense, and the mirage gives strange delusive shapes to the landscape, and
offers false premises of water and shade where the experienced traveler knows
there is nothing but the glaring plain. When the sun is high in the cloudless
heavens and one is far out in the desert at a distance from rocks and trees,
there is a lack of shadow and an absence of relief in the landscape that makes
the distance deceptive - the mountains appearing near at hand instead of
leagues away - and cause one to fancy that there is no single source of light,
but that the distant ranges and the desert surfaces are self-luminous. The glare
of the noonday sun conceals rather than reveals the grandeur of this rugged
land, but in the early morning and the near sunset the slanting light brings out
mountain range after mountain range in bold relief, and reveals a world of
sublimity. As the sun sinks behind the western peaks and the shades of
evening grow deeper and deeper on the mountains, every ravine and canon
becomes a fathomless abyss of purple haze, shrouding the bases of gorgeous
towers and battlements that seem encrusted with a mosaic more brilliant and
intricate than the work of Venetian artists. As the light fades and the twilight
deepens, the mountains lose their detail and become sharply outlined
silhouettes, drawn in the deepest and richest purpose against a brilliant sky.
In terms of its geological background, many scientists have characterized the ranges and
valleys of the Great Basin as huge blocks of the earth's crust, which have been uplifted,
dropped, and tilted. Enormous cracks, or faults, bound the blocks, and the uplifted parts
have been eroded over geologic time, with the debris accumulating over the depressed
parts. Several such blocks are to be found in both western Utah and western Nevada.
The blocks are 15-30 miles across and follow an approximate north-south direction. There
are about 30 major fault-bounded blocks between the Wasatch and Sierra Nevada ranges.
The movement in the faults - a response to stresses in the earth's crust - has been in a
vertical direction, between 1,000 and 15,000 feet in extent, although toward the western
edge of the province some horizontal movement has been observed.
In many places volcanic rocks have been cut and displaced by the block faults, and since
the volcanic rocks are some 30 million years old, the faulting is obviously younger than
that. Since the faulting generally occurs in small steps of a few feet each, and since most
of the faults have total displacements of several thousand feet, it is believed that, in
general, the process took an enormous period of time. Furthermore, many of the faults
exhibit fresh surfaces, indicating relatively recent movement, while there are historical
records of earthquakes and constant contemporary micro-earthquakes, indicating that
faulting has continued to the present. The Great Basin is nonetheless youthful in a
geologic sense, and it is likely that it obscures older mountain systems that were,
XII
respectively, eastward extensions of the Sierra Nevada and westward extensions of the
developing Rocky Mountains.1
GREAT BASIN NATIONAL PARK
On October 27, 1986, President Ronald W. Reagan signed into law (Public Law 99-565;
100 Stat. 3181) an act of Congress providing for the establishment of Great Basin National
Park. Thus, the park became the nation's 49th reservation to be so designated.
Geographic Location
Great Basin National Park, consisting of nearly 77,000 acres, is located in central eastern
Nevada within the Snake Mountains, an elongated north-south trending range bounded on
the west by Spring Valley and on the east by Snake Valley. The park boundaries are
contiguous with Humboldt National Forest. The park lies in White Pine County, and its
headquarters are located at Lehman Caves, some five miles west of Baker, Nevada, near
the Nevada-Utah state boundary.
Purpose
The purpose of the park is stated in its establishing act. The park was established
to preserve for the benefit and inspiration of the people a representative segment of
the Great Basin of the Western United States possessing outstanding resources and
significant geological and scenic values.
To accomplish this purpose the Secretary of the Interior was empowered to
protect, manage, and administer the park in such a manner as to conserve and
protect the scenery, the natural, geologic, historic, and archaeological resources of
the park, including fish and wildlife and to provide for the public use and enjoyment
of the same in such a manner as to perpetuate these qualities for future generations.
Significance
Located in the heart of the Great Basin, Great Basin National Park has exceptional
examples of regional geology, biologic diversity, and scenic grandeur. Among the
significant geologic attractions in the park are rugged cliffs, deep gorges, block-faulted
mountains, numerous caves, pinnacles, and remnants of the glacial age. Lehman Caves
is one of the largest limestone solution caverns in the western United States, featuring an
array of formations including unusual shields found here and in few other caves. Carved
into its present shape by mountain glaciers and by rushing waters of various streams,
Wheeler Peak (3,982 meters - 13,063 feet) is one of the highest mountains in the Great
Basin, the second highest peak in the state of Nevada, and the pinnacle of the impressive
Snake Range. From the summit of Wheeler Peak one is afforded spectacular panoramas
of the Great Basin, and on its flanks are a remnant glacial ice field and a desert-bound
1. Nevin M. Fenneman, Physiography of Western United States (New York and London, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., 1931), pp. 326-95; A.J. Eardley, Structural Geology of North America (2d ed., 1962), ch. 31; Gloria
Griffin Cline, Exploring the Great Basin (Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), pp. 1-8; and Russell R.
Elliott, History of Nevada (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 1973), pp. 1-14.
XIII
rock glacier. Among other features in the park is the noted Lexington Arch, a dramatic, six-
story-high limestone formation.
The park's dramatic mountain rises protect an array of plant and animal habitats, ranging
from upper Sonoran sagebrush communities to the Arctic alpine tundra life zone,
encompassing in all five life zones within the space of five miles. During the spring and
summer many kinds of wildflowers bloom in a progression up the mountain slopes,
including lupine, yellow aster, larkspur, locoweed, globemallow, columbine, pricklepoppy,
and cactus. Forested areas with such species as timber pine, ponderosa pine, Englemann
spruce, white fir, Douglas fir, aspen, and mountain mahogany occur in the park, punctuated
by mountain meadows and alpine Jakes. At the higher elevations the park contains several
of the largest known groves of Bristlecone pines, which can be more than 4,500 years old
and are among the oldest living things on earth. Among the types of wildlife that inhabit
the park are mule deer, bighorn sheep, cougars, coyotes, and a variety of birds including
golden eagles, blue grouse, sage grouse, owls, bluebirds, and dippers. Rainbow and brook
trout and the Bonneville cutthroat trout occur in the park's perennial streams.
The park also contains a variety of cultural resources associated with the history of human
activity in the Great Basin. Such resources include scattered remains from prehistoric times
and structures and sites related to mining, western surveys, ranching, and grazing. These
themes are among the most significant in terms of illustrating the historic socioeconomic
development of the park area and the wider Great Basin.
XIV
CHAPTER ONE
OVERVIEW OF PREHISTORY OF GREAT BASIN NATIONAL PARK
Much of what is known of the prehistory of the Great Basin has resulted from excavations,
particularly in caves and rockshelters, large-scale ground surveys conducted by federal
bureaus such as the Bureau of Land Management and the U.S. Forest Service, and smaller
state, county, and private surveys, many of which have been carried out in response to
ground-disturbing projects and development proposals. Excavations have provided
considerable detail on prehistoric subsistence patterns and cultural chronologies, while
surveys have aided the identification of land use and settlement patterns. Excavated cave
and rock shelter sites in the vicinity of Great Basin National Park include those in Smith
Creek Canyon in the northern Snake Range and the Baker Creek cave system and Lehman
Caves in the park.
Three distinct cultural manifestations are represented in the archeological record of the park
vicinity. These include the Paleoindian Period (12,000 BC - 9,000 BC), Archaic (9,000 BC
- 500 AD), and Fremont (500 AD - 1300 AD).
The earliest well-dated sites in the Great Basin fall within the Paleoindian Period. The
Paleoindians were big game hunters, their primary subsistence focus being large, now
extinct Pleistocene fauna, including mammoth, bison, ground-sloth, camel, and horse.
Large fluted and unfluted projectile points, such as Clovis, Folsom, and Piano points, were
used to hunt the animals. The Paleoindian hunting groups were likely small and mobile,
thus permitting them to move with the herds they were harvesting.
Paleoindian sites are generally found in the open as "kill sites," in caves and rockshelters,
and along the terraces of now-dry bodies of water. While relatively few Paleoindian sites
have been found, there is evidence of Paleoindian occupation in Smith Creek Canyon on
the east side of the northern Snake Range. Thus, there is reason to assume a Paleoindian
presence within the park area.
In response to climatic changes resulting in the desiccation of lakes scattered throughout
the Great Basin and to the simultaneous disappearance of the larger Pleistocene game
animals, a broader food-gathering pattern emerged. Known as the Great Basin Desert
Archaic, this pattern emphasized utilization of a wider range of plant and animal products.
Seed-grinding implements, such as manos and milling stones, were employed to process
hard-shelled grass seeds. Other activities associated with this period were use of basketry,
netting, fiber and hide moccasins, spears, and digging sticks. Shell beads were acquired
in trade with groups from coastal California areas.
Archaic sites are generally found in caves and rockshelters and open areas near springs.
Among the excavated sites in the park vicinity that have Archaic components are Danger
Cave, Newark Cave, Swallow Shelter, Amy's Shelter, and Kachina Cave. Archaic evidence
has also been found in several widely scattered areas within the park. These site types
include caves, rockshelters, camp sites, stone tool manufacturing areas (i.e., lithic scatters),
artifact scatters, burial areas, petroglyphs, and pictographs.
The Fremont Period covers a time span when the Great Basin was inhabited by peoples
employing a sedentary horticultural lifestyle. The Fremont lived in small villages or
farmstead communities. These peoples were primarily small-scale farmers, supplementing
their diet by hunting and gathering.
The Fremont peoples manufactured pottery and had a distinctive artistic style characterized
by clay figurines and rock art. Residential structures were fairly substantial, and storage
1
structures were built to protect excess plant foods. The principal Fremont site near the
park is at Garrison, while other Fremont site types in the immediate vicinity of the park
include antelope drives, hunting blinds, cemeteries, and plant food processing stations.
Fremont style rock art (petroglyphs and pictographs) and other cultural materials have been
noted in the park. As the park lies on the western Fremont frontier, it is possible that
Fremont peoples appeared in the area as late as 700-1100 AD.
Great Basin National Park lies within the ethnographic territory of the Numic speaking
Western Shoshone (1300 AD - Ethnographic Present). At the time of contact with
Euroamericans seven Shoshone villages were reported in the southern Snake vicinity.
Although Spring Valley peoples have been referred to as "Gosiutes," there are no cultural
and linguistic differences between the two groups.
The Western Shoshone were dispersed into small kin groups living in seasonally occupied
camps near water sources. At various times during the year, several villages would join
together to conduct ceremonies and communal hunts.
Subsistence activities centered on an annual round of gathering vegetal foods and animal
hunts. In the fall communal rabbit and antelope drives were held and pinyon nuts
harvested and stored. During the winter families gathered to live in villages which were
usually located in what is now known as the lower pinyon-juniper zones. Individual families
dispersed to lower valley areas during the spring and summer to harvest grass seeds,
roots, tubers, and small mammals.
Domestic structures were generally conically-shaped brush houses supported by wood pole
frames. Floors were circular and covered with grass or mats. Brush lean-tos and circles,
four-post sunshades, caves, and rockshelters provided additional shelter. Both earth-
covered and willow-wickiup sweathouses were constructed.1
In recent years numerous studies have been prepared to document the prehistory of the
Great Basin. Among the most useful of these studies are:
Robert L Bettinger and Martin A. Baumhoff, "The Numic Spread: Great Basin
Cultures in Competition," American Antiquity, XLVII (July, 1982), 485-503.
Warren L. D'Azevedo, ed., Great Basin, Volume II, Handbook of North American
Indians (Washington, Smithsonian Institution, 1986).
Don Fowler and David Koch, "The Great Basin," in Gordon L. Bender, ed., Reference
Handbook on the Deserts of North America (Westport, Connecticut, Greenwood
Press, 1982), pp. 7-63.
David B. Madsen and James F. O'Connell, eds., Man and Environment in the Great
Basin, SAA Papers No. 2 (Washington, Society for American Archaeology,
1982).
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Nevada Office, Current
Status of CRM Archaeology in the Great Basin, Cultural Resource Series,
Monograph No. 9, by C. Melvin Aikens, ed., August 1986.
1. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Western Archeological and Conservation Center,
An Archeological Overview of Great Basin National Park, by Krista Deal (Publications in Anthropology No. 49,
1988), pp. 4-6, 31-84, 119-21. The Southern Paiute inhabited the extreme southern portions of Snake and Spring
valleys during ethnographic times.
After the establishment of Great Basin National Park in October 1986, the National Park
Service conducted an archeological overview of the park. The study, entitled An
Archeological Overview of Great Basin National Park, was prepared by Krista Deal of the
Western Archeological and Conservation Center in Tucson and published in 1988. Among
the components of the study are discussions of: (1) prehistoric and ethnographic cultural
history of the area; (2) an inventory of archeological investigations and cultural resources
in the park with recommendations for management; (3) a summary of general management
actions and suggestions for future research; and (4) an extensive bibliography of sources
related to archeological and anthropological concerns in the park and surrounding region.
Various other archeological and anthropological studies have been conducted in recent
years that focus on the state of Nevada, eastern Nevada and western Utah, and White
Pine County. These efforts have particular significance for an understanding of the
prehistory of the park and its immediate vicinity. Among the more important of these
studies are:
C. Melvin Aikens, Indian Petroglyphs from White Pine County, Nevada, Miscellaneous
Paper Number 19, University of Utah Anthropological Papers, Number 99,
1978.
C. William Clewlow, Jr., ed., Four Rock Art Studies (Socorro, New Mexico, Ballena
Press, 1978).
Don D. Fowler, Final Report, Assessment of Cultural Resources of Lehman Caves
National Monument, White Pine County, Nevada, University of Nevada System,
Desert Research Institute, Human Systems Center, Technical Report No. 4,
1977.
No. 2: Archeological Survey in Eastern Nevada, 1966, and No. 3:
The Archeology of Newark Cave, White Pine County, Nevada, University of
Nevada System, Desert Research Institute, Technical Report Series S-H,
Social Sciences & Humanities, Publications Nos. 2 and 3, 1968.
Robert F. Heizer and Martin A. Baumhoff, Prehistoric Rock Art of Nevada and Eastern
California (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1962).
Steven R. James, ed., Prehistory, Ethnohistory, and History of Eastern Nevada: A
Cultural Resources Summary of the Elko and Ely Districts, Contract No. YA-
553-CTO-1025 between the Bureau of Land Management and the University
of Utah Archeological Center, Reports of Investigations 81-5, April 1981.
Carling Malouf, "The Gosiute Indians," Paper Number Three, in University of Utah,
Department of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers, Numbers 1-8, November
1950.
Jack R. Rudy, Archeological Survey of Western Utah, University of Utah, Department
of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers, Number 12, November 1953.
Dee Calderwood Taylor, The Garrison Site: A Report of Archeological Excavations
in Snake Valley, Nevada-Utah, University of Utah, Department of Anthropology,
Anthropological Papers, No. 16, May 1954.
U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Western Archeological Center,
Archeological Summaries for Great Basin New Area Studies: Monitor Valley,
Railroad Valley, Snake Range, Lassen -Applegate Trail, by Yvonne G. Stewart,
1980.
CD. Zeier, The White Pine Power Project: Cultural Resource Considerations, Vol.
I, A Culture History Overview and Predictive Model for the Existence of
Cultural Resources in White Pine County, Nevada (Los Angeles, Dames and
Moore, 1981).
CHAPTER TWO
DISCOVERY AND EARLY EXPLORATION OF THE GREAT BASIN: 1776 - 1850s
INTRODUCTION
This chapter will discuss four phases of the discovery and early exploration of the Great
Basin. The four topics are: (1) Spanish penetration; (2) fur traders and trappers;
(3) westward trails and expansion; and (4) early official exploration surveys.
SPANISH PENETRATION
With the Columbus voyage of 1492, European exploration of the Americas was
commenced, and during the next 250 years expeditions explored the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts of North America and much of its interior, revealing most of the physical
characteristics of the continent. By the 1750s only one large area still lay unknown to
Euroamericans - the Great Basin, lying in the heart of the Trans-Mississippi West. In
subsequent years European fascination with finding a northwest water passage to Cathay,
trapping of furs, and the quest for legendary lands of riches in the American Southwest
played significant roles in the discovery and exploration of the Great Basin. These
economic motives prompted the exploration of this unknown land and provided an indirect
motivating force for a Spanish advance northward from New Spain.1
As various European nations converged upon North America to achieve the aforementioned
goals, Spain, which had not moved northward because the material inducement was not
sufficient for her to battle the troublesome Apaches and Comanches, realized that she must
protect her New World territories, and this incentive aroused her from her lethargy.
Northward expansion from New Spain followed three principal lines: northwestward to
Sonora and the Californias; up the central plateau through Nueva Vizcaya to New Mexico;
and up the central plateau through Coahuila into Texas.
By the early 1770s Spain had established several missions along the Alta California coast.
Now Spain was faced with the problem of supplying these new outposts which lay so far
apart. It soon became apparent that an overland route between the New Mexico
settlements and the Alta California missions was essential if Spanish control were to
continue on the California coast and Spanish domination were to endure over the American
Southwest. The search for this overland route through much arid and largely unknown
country is the first chapter in the Euroamerican penetration of the Great Basin.
Two separate Spanish expeditions entered the Great Basin in 1776, one on the west led
by Franciscan Father Francisco Hermenegildo Garces and one on the east by Franciscan
Fathers Francisco Silvestre Velez de Escalante and Francisco Atanasio Domfnquez. These
friars are of particular significance because they were the first white men to penetrate the
facade of the Great Basin. Their expeditions provided a better understanding of this
previously unknown region and set the stage for future exploration.2
The Garces expedition set out from Tubac on January 8, 1774, and opened a route to the
San Gabriel Mission in California. The route passed along the Gila River to present-day
Yuma, Arizona, northward along the Colorado River to present-day Needles, California,
1. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, pp. 18-33.
2. Ibid., pp. 33-35.
across the Mojave Desert to present-day Victorville, California, in the Mojave River drainage
basin, over Cajon Pass in the San Bernardino Mountains to the San Gabriel Valley, and
then on to present-day Bakersfield, California, before returning. The most important part
of the 2-1/2-year journey occurred on March 7, 1776, when Garces left the Colorado
drainage system west of present-day Needles and entered the Great Basin. On his return
Garces followed a trail slightly north of his previous one and left the Great Basin on May
25, 1776, thus ending the first penetration of the region by Euroamericans. Although he
explored only a small portion of this inhospitable region, Garces laid the basis for much
conjectural geography which would play a significant role in shaping the future history of
exploration of the Great Basin.3
The Escalante-Dominquez expedition, which left Santa Fe on July 29, 1776, in search of
a feasible overland route to Monterey on the Pacific Coast of Alta California, is more
significant than Garces in regard to the Great Basin and this study. These friars explored
a considerable portion of the eastern Great Basin in present-day Utah and came within 80
to 90 miles east of present-day Great Basin National Park.
The little group departed, following the fur trappers' trail northwest past Mesa Verde,
descending the Dolores River some distance. The party crossed the Uncompahgre Plateau,
the Gunnison River, Grand Mesa, and Battlement Mesa, before reaching the Colorado River
in the vicinity of Grand Valley. Here they crossed the Colorado River, ascended the
escarpments of the East Tavaputs Plateau, and at the divide passed over to the watershed
of Green River. Proceeding through the Uinta Basin, the expedition followed the Spanish
Fork River through the Wasatch Mountains and entered Utah Valley and the Great Basin
on September 21, 1776 - the first Euroamerican entrance into the Great Basin above the
latitude of the Mojave Desert. Upon leaving Utah Valley, the Spaniards turned to the
southwest in order to reach the latitude of Monterey before turning west. On September
29 they reached the Sevier River near present-day Mills, Utah. Continuing southward, the
party passed close to Clear Lake and proceeded through Beaver River Valley, camping at
various spots between present-day Delta and Milford during the early part of October.
During this portion of the expedition the group was some 80 to 90 miles east of the Snake
Mountains. The diary of the expedition kept by Escalante contains poignant observations
about the desolation and harsh environment of the region. On October 1 , for instance, the
party camped on the edge of salt marshes some 4-1/2 miles northwest of Pahvant Butte
in present-day Juab County. The padres called the camp site "Llano Salado" (Salt Plain)
because "of some white and thin shells that we found," leading them to believe that there
had once been a large lake in the area. Escalante commented further:
Having descended the ravine, or pass, we took to the west-northwest over low
hills with a great deal of rock and, having gone two leagues, we entered a
sagebrush stretch and traveled three leagues west along the edge of a dry
arroyo without a trail. We left the arroyo and, after going two leagues west by
north, turned toward the plain. We thought we saw marshland or lake water
nearby, hurried our pace, and discovered that what we had judged to be water
3. For more information on the Garces expedition, see Elliott Cowes, ed., On the Trail of a Spanish Pioneer:
The Diary and Itinerary of Francisco Garces (2 vols., New York, F.P. Harper, 1900); Herbert Eugene Bolton, The
Early Explorations of Father Garces on the Pacific Slope (New York, Macmillan, 1917); and John Galvin, ed., A
Record of Travels in Arizona and California, 1775-1776 (San Francisco, John Howell Books, 1965).
4. For more information on the Dominquez-Escalante expedition see Herbert E. Bolton, trans, and ed.,
Pageant in the Wilderness: The Story of the Escalante Expedition to the Interior Basin, 1776 (Salt Lake City,
Utah Historical Society, 1950), and Herbert E. Auerbach, "Father Escalante's Route," Utah Historical Quarterly, IX
(July, October 1941), 109-28, and XI (January, April, July, October 1943), 1-132.
was salt in some places, saltpeter in others, and in others dried alkaline
sediment. We kept on going west by south over a plain and salt flats and, after
traveling more than six leagues, we halted without having found water fit to
drink or pasturage for the horses, since these already could go no farther.
There was some pasturage where we stopped, but bad and scarce. All over
the plain behind there had been none, either good or bad.5
The following day the friars encountered some Indians "from among the full-bearded and
pierced-nose ones, who called themselves Tirangapui in their language." These "Bearded
Utes," who were probably Southern Paiutes, engaged in friendly conversation with the
padres, who immediately began efforts to Christianize the natives. The expedition's journal
for October 2 states:
We announced the Gospel to them as well as the interpreter could manage it.
We told them that if they wanted to attain the blessings proposed we would
come back with more padres so that all could be instructed, as would those of
the lake who were awaiting the friars, but that in such an event they were not
to live scattered about as now but gathered together in towns.
They all replied very joyfully that we must come back with the other padres, that
they would do whatsoever we taught them and ordered them to do - the chief
adding that then, if we so wished and deemed it more advantageous, they
would go to live with the Lagunas (which we likewise had proposed to them).
We took our leave of them, and all, the chief especially, kept holding us by the
hand with great tenderness and affection. But where they expressed
themselves the most was when we were already leaving this place. Scarcely
did they see us depart when all - following their chief, who started first - burst
out crying copious tears, so that even when we were quite a distance away we
kept hearing the tender laments of these unfortunate little sheep of Christ, lost
along the way simply for not having the Light. They touched our hearts so
much that some of our companions could not hold back the tears.6
While proceeding along the Beaver River Valley north of present Milford, an early
snowstorm blanketed the area. Further difficulty was encountered when the party failed
to find a route westward across the Beaver Mountains. On October 7 the padres noted
that they "were in great distress, without firewood and extremely cold, for with so much
snow and water the ground, which was soft here, was unfit for travel."7
The following day the group reluctantly concluded that it should return to Santa Fe. The
expedition continued south to the vicinity of modern Cedar City, where it left the Great
Basin and crossed to the Colorado River, negotiating it by what since has been known as
the Crossing of the Fathers. The expedition finally reached Santa Fe on January 2, 1777,
completing a 1 ,800-mile journey in slightly more than five months.
Although the explorers were not able to achieve their goal of blazing a trail between Santa
Fe and Monterey, the Dominquez-Escalante expedition did make the first comprehensive
traverse of the Colorado Plateau and of a considerable portion of the eastern Great Basin.
5. Fray Angelico Chavez, trans., and Ted J. Warner, ed., The Dominquez-Escalante Journal (Provo, Brigham
Young University Press, 1977), pp. 65, 67.
6. Ibid., pp. 66-67.
7. Ibid., p. 70.
The diary kept by Escalante and the maps drawn by Bernardo Miera y Pacheco are,
according to Great Basin historian Gloria Griffin Cline, "important items in western American
historical literature, since they provided a basis for further exploration and additional
conjectural geography which was to achieve world-wide fame."8
The Garces and Domfnquez-Escalante explorations of 1776 were the last official Spanish
expeditions to penetrate the Great Basin. By giving literary as well as cartographic
expression to their activities in that region, they set the course of subsequent exploration
and established the eastern and western approaches to the Old Spanish Trail which would
be inaugurated during the winter of 1 830-31 .9
FUR TRADERS AND TRAPPERS
For more than two centuries the fur trade was the principal business upon the American
frontier. This commercial enterprise was pioneered by the French and British, who had
abandoned their dreams of wealth derived from precious metals for more substantial goals.
With the Peace of Paris of 1763, Great Britain replaced France as the major power in
North America, and with the advent of American independence as a result of the Treaty of
Paris in 1783 the United States became the primary competitor of the British. While the
first explorers and cartographers focused attention upon the trans-Mississippi West, British
and American competitors in the Columbia and Missouri basins stimulated interest in the
southern drainage area and led fur trappers in the Great Basin.
Between 1818 and 1846, when the British were forced to retreat into northern North
America, they played a significant role in the exploration of the Great Basin. The Snake
River Expedition, inaugurated by the North West Company in 1818 and adopted by the
Hudson's Bay Company in 1821, discovered and explored many of the important features
of the region. The members of the Snake Country expeditions proceeded southward from
their posts in what is now the northwestern United States and pushed into the Great Basin
as early as 1818, at least six years before American penetration. Thus, the North West
and Hudson's Bay companies through their vital organ, the Snake Country Expedition, are
credited with the discovery and exploration of a large part of the northern Great Basin,
particularly those sections lying within the present political boundaries of northern Utah and
Nevada, southwestern Idaho, and southeastern Oregon.10
Peter Skene Ogden was a leading figure in the Anglo-American struggle for the fur trade
and empire during the 1820s. As a brigade leader for the Hudson's Bay Company he
conducted six Snake Country expeditions between 1824 and 1830, seeking to create a "fur
desert" between United States territory and the southern approaches to the Columbia River.
The British implemented this "scorched earth" policy - the systematic trapping out of
streams - not only for the purpose of acquiring as much wealth as possible but also to
discourage American trapper penetration and the consequent entry of pioneer farmers.11
8. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, p. 48. For more information on Miera's maps, see Carl I. Wheat,
Mapping the Trans-Mississippi West. 1540-1861 (6 vols, San Francisco, Institute of Historical Cartography, 1957-
58), I, 94-116.
9. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, pp. 54, 58-59.
10. Ibid., pp. 77, 93.
11. Ted J. Warner, "Peter Skene Ogden," in The Mountain Men and the Fur Trade of the Far West, ed. by
LeRoy R. Hafen (Glendale, California, The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1966), III, 213-38.
Ogden's fifth Snake Country Expedition in 1828-29 was one of his most important. Prior
to that time he had trapped along the major streams and their tributaries in what are now
the states of Montana, Oregon, Idaho, and Utah, but he had not entered the largest area
of the Great Basin, that region which lies chiefly within the boundaries of the modern state
of Nevada,
This region remained virtually untouched, probably because of its harsh, forbidding
environment. With one exception all of the important streams of this area are fed from
the high mountains on the west. The Humboldt River alone derives its waters from the
interior basin ranges, largely from the Ruby and East Humboldt mountains. The Humboldt
River was one of the most important discoveries of Ogden's 1828-29 expedition. Naming
it the "Unknown River," he was the first Euroamerican to arrive on its banks and the first
to follow it from its source to its sink near present-day Lovelock, Nevada. Despite its
brackish water and the barrenness and unbearable conditions of the region through which
it flowed, this river would provide an artery across the western part of the Great Basin for
future exploration and travel.12
Virtually all of Odgen's travels were to the north of present-day White Pine Country,
Nevada. During his 1829-30 expedition, however, he may have passed as far south as
the Elko-White Pine county line on his way from the Humboldt River to the Great Salt
Lake.13
Although the British antedated the Americans in the Great Basin by six years, the
Americans were destined to play a significant role in the discovery of topographical features
in the region. During the years between 1 824 and 1 830 American fur traders roamed over
almost every section of the Great Basin, revealing the arid and inhospitable nature of the
area.14
One of the most prominent American fur organizations was the Rocky Mountain Fur
Company, founded in 1822 by Major Andrew Henry and Brigadier General William Ashley.15
The formation of this enterprise was an important event in Great Basin history, for the
roster of this company contained the names of some of the most distinguished men in the
history of the region's exploration. It was under the banner of this company that Jedediah
Smith entered the Great Salt Lake area in 1824-25 and led the vanguard of the American
fur trade into the Great Basin, particularly after he, David Jackson, and William Sublette
purchased the company in 1826.16
As a result of the Smith-Jackson-Sublette purchase of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company
in 1826, the partners began to prepare for expanding operations. Jackson was named the
12. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, pp. 111-12, 131. The best historical account of the Humboldt River and
its importance to the Great Basin is Dale L Morgan, The Humboldt: Highroad of the West (New York, Farrar
and Rinehart, 1943).
13. Alvin R. McLane, "Exploration and Early Mapping in Eastern Nevada," Paper Presented at the White Pine
Public Library, Ely, Nevada, April 5, 1988, p. 1.
14. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, p. 132.
15. Harvey L. Carter, "William H. Ashley," in The Mountain Men and the Fur Trade, ed. by Hafen, VII, 23-34.
16. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, p. 132; Harvey L Carter, "Jedediah Smith," in The Mountain Men and
the Fur Trade, VIII, 331-48; and Harrison Clifford Dale, The Ashley-Smith Explorations and the Discovery of a
Central Route to the Pacific, 1822-1829 (Cleveland, The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1918), pp. 179-86.
resident partner, maintaining his headquarters first in the vicinity of the Great Salt Lake and
later east of the mountains near the headwaters of the Sweetwater River. Sublette was
appointed to make the annual trip to St. Louis with the year's accumulation of furs and
obtain requisite supplies. Smith was designated the explorer to seek out new fields for
exploration.17
The three partners undertook to operate in the region between the Great Salt Lake and the
Pacific Ocean. Eager to penetrate this vast new area, the men decided that Smith should
explore and survey the vast expanse to determine its fur-bearing resources, business
potentialities, and geographical features. Consequently, Smith, with a party of fifteen men,
embarked on a "South West Expedition" in 1826-27, thus becoming the first explorer to
pass overland to California from the American frontier. Of significance for this study is the
fact that Smith crossed the Snake Range over present-day Sacramento Pass during this
expedition, hence becoming the first Euroamerican to penetrate the vicinity of Great Basin
National Park.
Leaving Cache Valley in mid-August 1826 Smith and his men rode southwest into the
valley of the Great Salt Lake, then southward through Utah Valley and the present-named
Sevier and Beaver River valleys, past the sites of the modern towns of Paragonah,
Parowan, and Cedar City, Utah, before passing over the rim of the Great Basin near Ash
Creek, a tributary of the Virgin River which is part of the Colorado River drainage system.
While this route is generally accepted by scholars, there are some who believe that Smith
turned west from Sevier Valley and crossed the range of hills west of Escalante Valley,
suggesting that he entered the present state of Nevada near the modern towns of Panaca
and Pioche.18 The only information from Smith concerning this part of his expedition is
found in a somewhat confusing letter written on July 12, 1827, to Brigadier General William
Clark, one of the leaders of the earlier Lewis and Clark Expedition and then Superintendent
of Indian Affairs:
My situation in this country has enabled me to collect information respecting a
section of the country which has hitherto been measurably veiled in obscurity
to the citizens of the United States - I allude to the country S. W. of the Great
Salt Lake west of the Rocky Mountains.
I started about the 22d of August 1826, from the Great Salt Lake, with a party
of fifteen men, for the purpose of exploring the country S. W. which was entirely
unknown to me, and of which I could collect no satisfactory information from the
Indians who inhabit this country on its N. E. borders.
My general course on leaving the Salt Lake was S. W & W, Passing the Little
Uta Lake and ascending Ashley's river, which Empties into the Little Uta Lake.
- From the lake I found no more signs of buffalo: there are a few antelope and
mountain sheep, and an abundance of black tailed hares. On Ashley's river,
I found a nation of Indians who call themselves Sampatch; they were friendly
disposed towards us. I passed over a range of mountains running S. E. &
N. W. and struck a river running S. W. which I called Adams River, in
compliment to our President. - The water is of a muddy cast, and is a little
17. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, pp. 151-52, and Dale L. Morgan, Jedediah Smith and the Opening of
the West (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 1953), pp. 175-92.
18. For more discussion of this issue, see C. Hart Merriam, "Earliest Crossing of the Deserts of Utah and
Nevada to Southern California: Route of Jedediah S. Smith in 1826," California Historical Quarterly, II (October
1923), 228-36, and F.N. Fletcher, "Eastbound Route of Jedediah S. Smith, 1827," California Historical Quarterly,
III (January 1924), 344-49.
10
brackish. The country is mountainous to the East; towards the West there are
sandy plains and detached rocky hills.
Passing down this river some distance, I fell in with a nation of Indians who
called themselves Pa Ulches (those Indians, as well as those last mentioned,
wear rabbit skin robes) who raise some little corn and pumpkins. - the country
is nearly destitute of game of any description, except a few hares. Here, (about
10 days march down it) the river turns to the South East. On the S. W. side
of the river there is a cave, the Entrance of which is about 10 or 15 feet high,
and 5 or 6 feet in width; - After descending about 15 feet, a room opens out
from 25 to 30 feet in length and 15 to 20 feet in width; - the roof, sides and
floor are solid Rock Salt, a sample of which I send you, with some other
articles, which will be hereafter described. I here found a Kind of plant of the
prickly pear kind, which I called the cabbage pear, the largest of which grows
about two feet and a half high and 1-1/2 feet in diameter; upon examination I
found it to be nearly of the substance of a turnip, altho' by no means palatable;
its form was similar to that of an Egg, being smaller at the ground and top than
in the middle; it is covered with pricks similar to the prickly pear with which you
are acquainted.19
After crossing the Colorado River near present-day Needles, California, the Smith expedition
crossed the Mojave Desert, following a route similar to that used by Garces half a century
earlier. The party reached the San Bernardino Mountains, crossed them via Cajon Pass,
and finally pushed on to the San Gabriel Mission, arriving on November 26, 1826.20
In May 1827 Smith and two companions, Silas Gobel and Robert Evans, began their
eastward trek home in what would become the first Euroamerican penetration of present-
day central eastern Nevada. Crossing the Sierra Nevada via Ebbetts Pass, the men moved
down the eastern slope of the mountains by way of the east fork of the Carson River and
the west fork of the Walker, entering the Great Basin just south of Walker Lake. They
moved eastward between the Gabbs Valley and Pilot ranges and then around the southern
end of the Shoshone and Toiyabe mountains and across the Toquima Mountains.
Continuing eastward, they crossed the Monitor Range and struck Hot Creek, and then
traveled along the base of the Pancake Range. Smith continued past the Big Spring at
Lockes, crossing Railroad Valley and the north end of the Grant Range before heading
northeastward through the White River Valley. The route continued over the Egan Range,
across Steptoe Valley, and across the Schell Creek Range by way of Connors Pass. In
Spring Valley Indians guided Smith to a spring, which was probably Layton Spring, several
miles west of Osceola, where he obtained water and backtracked to one of his companions
who was faltering. Smith then went over Sacramento Pass and northeast across Snake
Valley before crossing into present-day Utah near Gandy, thus becoming the first known
Euroamerican to pass through the vicinity of present Great Basin National Park. Moving
north along the base of the Snake and Deep Creek ranges, the party finally reached the
American encampment at Bear Lake on July 3, 1827.21
19. Copies of this letter are printed in Morgan, Jedediah Smith and the Opening of the West, Appendix A,
pp. 334-37, and Dale, Ashley-Smith Explorations and the Discovery of a Central Route to the Pacific, pp. 186-94.
20. Morgan, Jedediah Smith and the Opening of the West, pp. 197-201. Smith's extraordinary experiences
in California are discussed in pages 201-09 of this book.
21. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, pp. 157-58, and McLane, "Exploration and Early Mapping in Eastern
Nevada," p. 1.
11
Smith described the harsh environment that he encountered during his eastward trek across
the Great Basin in two accounts. Having just crossed the present-day Nevada-Utah border
near Gandy and moving north along the base of the Snake and Deep Creek ranges, Smith
noted in his journal on June 22-24, 1827:
North 25 Miles. My course was nearly parallel with a chain of hills on the west
[Deep Creek Mountains], on the tops of which was some snow and from which
ran a creek to the North East. On this creek [Thomas Creek] I encamped. The
Country in the vicinity so much resembled that on the south side of the Salt
Lake that for a while I was induced to believe that I was near that place.
During the day I saw a good many Antelope but could not kill any. I however,
killed 2 hares which when cooked at night we found much better than horse
meat. June 23d N E 35 Miles. Moving on in the morning I kept down the creek
on which we had encamped until it was lost in a small Lake. We then filled our
horns and continued on our course, passing some brackish as well as some
verry salt springs [Salt Wells], and leaving on the north of the latter part of the
days travel a considerable Salt Plain [the Salt Desert, the northern reaches of
which he had seen the year before]. Just before night I found water that was
drinkable but continued on in hopes of finding better and was obliged to encamp
without any. June 24th N E 40 Miles. I started verry early in the hopes of
soon finding water. But ascending a high point of a hill I could discover nothing
but sandy plains or dry Rocky Hills with the Exception of a snowy mountain off
to the N E at the distan[c]e of 50 or 60 Miles [the Stansbury Range]. When
I came down I durst not tell my men of the desolate prospect ahead but framed
my story so as to discourage them as little as possible. I told them I saw
something black at a distance, near which no doubt we would find water. While
I had been up on the [hill] one of the horses gave out and had been left a short
distance behind. I sent the men back to take the best of his flesh, for our
supply was again nearly exhausted, whilst I would push forward in search of
water. I went on a short distance and waited until they came up. They were
much discouraged with the gloomy prospect but said all I could to enliven their
hopes and told them in all probability we would soon find water. But the view
ahead was almost hopeless. With our best exertion we pushed forward,
walking as we had been for a long time over the soft sand. That kind of
traveling is very tiresome to men in good health who can eat when and what
they choose and drink as often as they desire, and to us worn down with
hunger and fatigue and burning with thirst increased by the blazing sands it was
almost insurportable. At about 4 O Clock we were obliged to stop on the side
of a sand hill under the shade of a small Cedar. We dug holes in the sand
and laid down in them for the purpose of cooling our heated bodies. After
resting about an hour we resumed our wearysome journey, and traveled until
10 O Clock at night, when we laid down to take a little repose, previous to this
and a short time after sun down I saw several turtle doves, and as I did not
recollect of every having seen them more than 2 or 3 miles from water I spent
more than an hour in looking for water, but it was in vain. 72
In the aforementioned letter that Smith wrote to Clark on July 12, 1827, he elaborated
further on the desolate and barren country that he had traversed. He observed:
After traveling twenty days from the East side of Mount Joseph, I struck the
S. W. corner of the Great Salt Lake, travelling over a country completely barren
and destitute of game. We frequently travelled without water sometimes for two
22. Quoted in Morgan, Jedediah Smith and the Opening of the West, pp. 211-13.
12
days over sandy deserts where there was no sign of vegetation and when we
found water in some of the rocky hills, we most generally found some Indians
who appeared the most miserable of the human race having nothing to subsist
on, (nor any clothing) except grass seed, grasshoppers, &c. When we arrived
at the Salt lake, we had but one horse and one mule remaining, which were so
feeble & poor that they could scarce carry the little camp equipage which I had
along; the balance of my horses I was compelled to eat as they gave out.23
The South West Expedition was significant in that it was the first crossing of the full width
of the Great Basin, marking out a trail from the Great Salt Lake to the Pacific Coast first
by a southern and then by a central route. Smith traversed this desolate region, crossing
from one complicated drainage area to another over numerous mountains barriers as well
as some of the most barren stretches of desert country that exist in the American
Southwest.24
WESTWARD TRAILS AND EXPANSION
By 1830 almost all the streams of any size and importance as well as other physical
characteristics of the Great Basin had been explored by the mountain men and fur trappers.
Much of the Great Basin had been found to be an inhospitable region where trappers had
been repulsed by its arid wastes. The paucity of fur-bearing and food-providing animals
made operations difficult and unprofitable and led trappers to refer to it as "Starvation
Country." The harsh environment of the Great Basin, together with the "scorched earth"
policy of the Hudson's Bay Company, made the land of interior drainage less inviting to the
trapper. In addition, more trappers were entering the field, resulting in greater competition
for the gradually diminishing beaver harvests and forcing the mountain men to roam over
larger areas in search of furs. Thus, after 1830 the Great Basin was no longer one of the
principal trapping grounds in itself, but merely part of a region which was combed in quest
of pelts. For these reasons many trappers left the mountains and entered other fields of
endeavor.25
Old Spanish Trail
The mountain men were especially attracted by events in the American Southwest. After
Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821, friendly trade with Americans was invited.
Development of the Santa Fe Trail from Independence, Missouri, to Santa Fe with its prairie
commerce resulted in the further extension of trade in the American Southwest, and the
23. Copies of this letter are printed in Morgan, Jedediah Smith and the Opening of the West, Appendix A,
pp. 334-37, and Dale, Ashley-Smith Explorations and the Discovery of a Central Route to the Pacific, pp. 1 86-94.
24. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, p. 163, and Morgan, Jedediah Smith and the Opening of the West, pp.
7-9. Further data on the significance of Smith and his expedition may be found in Effie Mona Mack, Nevada: A
History of the State from the Earliest Times Through the Civil War (Glendale, California, The Arthur H. Clark
Company, 1936), pp. 66-67.
25. David Wishart, The Fur Trade of the American West, 1807-1840: A Geographical Synthesis (Lincoln and
London, University of Nebraska Press, 1979), pp. 26-27.
13
possibility of expanding that trade to California became lucrative.26 The course of the trail
between Santa Fe and Los Angeles would become known as the Old Spanish Trail, the
discussion of which is appropriate for this study since it traversed the southern portion of
the Great Basin.
This trail, which had been envisioned in the late eighteenth century to serve as a link
connecting Spain's settlements in New Mexico and California, reached its height during
the 1830s and 1840s. Although never more than a trail for pack animals, it was practical
as a route for such commerce during the spring and fall seasons. Annual caravans
brought woolen blankets from New Mexico to be traded in California for horses and mules.
A slave trade also flourished, whereby blankets from New Mexico and grains, hides, and
animals from California were exchanged for Indian slaves in the Great Basin who were
captured not only by unscrupulous Spanish and Mexican traders but also by renegade Ute
bands.27
The Indian slave trade deserves further mention since it affected tribes living in the region
of present-day eastern Nevada and western Utah. The promotion of slavery as part of the
Spanish social system influenced all of the Indians on the northern borders of the new
Spanish colonies. Equipped with horses, the Utes and Navajos raided other groups for
slaves - usually taking young women and children - and selling them in the Spanish
settlements of New Mexico and southern California. The Southern Paiutes were in the
unfortunate position of living between the Ute raiders on the north and east, and the
Navajos on the south. Western Shoshone groups, although less involved in the traffic,
were prey to Ute raiders in the eastern areas of their territory. New Mexicans also
participated in the trade either directly or indirectly as dealers with the Utes and Navajos.
The earliest documentation of the slave trade in the Great Basin is the description of an
encounter in 1813 between Indians at Utah Lake and the Spanish traders Mauricio Arze
and Lagos Garcia. The trade flourished until 1850 when the Mormons, under Brigham
Young's direction, managed to suppress it. Numerous documents attest that raiding or
bargaining for slaves occurred around Utah Lake, in the Sevier River Valley, along the Old
Spanish Trail, and elsewhere in present-day Utah and eastern Nevada. In addition to the
mounted Navajo and Ute groups that participated in the slave trade expeditions were also
outfitted for slave trading in New Mexican settlements, and some British and American fur
trappers may also have engaged in the traffic as a sideline.
The Southern Paiutes and Western Shoshones were a major target of the slave raids. In
1839 it was reported that "Piutes" living near the Sevier River were "hunted in the spring
of the year, when weak and helpless, by a certain class of men, and when taken, are
fattened, carried to Santa Fe and sold as slaves during their minority." Female teenagers
were valued more highly than their male counterparts. There are also documented
instances of Mexicans, Navajos, or Utes trading jaded horses to the Southern Paiutes and
Western Shoshones for children, whereupon the horses were most frequently eaten.
Documentation suggests that the slave trade contributed to the timidity of the Southern
Paiutes and Western Shoshones and their virtual absence from some heavily-traveled
26. Further information on the Santa Fe Trail may be found in Max L Moorhead, ed., Commerce of the
Prairies by Joseph Gregg (Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1954); Hobart E. Stocking, The Road to Santa
Fe (New York, Hastings House, 197i); and R.L Duff us, The Santa Fe Trail (Albuquerque, University of New Mexico,
1930).
27. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, pp. 164-65; Leland Hargrave Creer, The Founding of an Empire: The
Exploration and Colonization of Utah, 1776-1856 (Salt Lake City, Bookcraft, 1947), pp. 31-39; and Delmont R.
Oswald, "James P. Beckwourth," in Trappers of the Far West: Sixteen Biographical Sketches, ed. by LeRoy R.
Hafen (Lincoln and London, University of Nebraska Press, 1983), p. 175.
14
areas. The slave trade may also have led to severe depopulation of their numbers since
it was reported that "scarcely one-half of the Py-eed [PaiuteJ children are permitted to grow
up in a band; and a large majority of these being males.
The general course of the Old Spanish Trail on its eastern side had been pioneered by the
Domfnguez-Escalante Expedition in 1776. The section between the Green River of the
Colorado River drainage system and the Sevier River in the Great Basin had been
established by a subsequent Spanish exploration party led by Mauricio Arze and Lagos
Garcia in 1813. Jedediah Smith had extended the trail westward in 1826 when he passed
southward to the Sevier and Beaver rivers, then proceeded to the Virgin River and
continued down it to the Colorado. Near present Needles, California, Smith intersected the
trail used by the Mojave Indians on their bartering expeditions to the Pacific Coast, this
being the same trail used by the Garces Expedition in 1776. Thus, the three most
important expeditions in early Great Basin exploration traced the general course of the Old
Spanish Trail and prepared a lane for barter and commerce through the desolate and
barren stretches of the land of interior drainage.29
In August 1829 travel began over the general course of the Old Spanish Trail when a
trapping party under Ewing Young set out from Taos to the head of the Salt River and
then trapped down it to its junction with the Rio Verde. Upon reaching the Colorado, the
group continued to California over the Garces trail.30 That same year transportation and
exchange of goods between New Mexico and California were begun by Antonio Armijo,
using a slightly different route from the Old Spanish Trail. He struck both the Amargosa
River of the Great Basin as well as the Mojave when crossing the desert between the
Colorado River and the Sierra Nevada Mountains.31
The first party to journey over the entire distance of the Old Spanish Trail was led by
William Wolfskill and George C. Yount during the winter of 1830-31. The two men were
natives of Kentucky and North Carolina, respectively, who had operated as fur traders from
a New Mexico base since the early 1820s. This trapping and trading party, consisting of
twenty men, went from Abiquiu to the San Juan and Dolores rivers along the earlier
Domfnguez-Escalante route. The group then crossed the Green River and the Wasatch
Mountains to reach the Sevier River and the Great Basin near Salina Canyon.
On the Sevier River the party encountered a group of Ute Indians, who, after receiving
presents of knives, tobacco, beads, awls, and vermilion, gave the whites permission to hunt
and trap throughout their territory. Yount, who was known to the Indians from previous
visits, regaled the Indians with pompous words, speaking of the Great Father in Washington
and his mighty guns, big cabins, and many braves. Yount described his encounter with the
Utes to his biographer. Reportedly, he told the Indians that he was
vice regent and son of the Great Spirit who rolls the sun, and whose pipe when
smoking makes the clouds. Whose big gun makes the thunder. And whose
rifle bullets and glittering arrows make the red lightning. Of these he could
28. Catherine S. and Don D. Fowler, "Notes on the History of the Southern Paiutes and Western Shoshonis,"
Utah Historical Quarterly, XXXIX (Spring 1971), 102-05.
29. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, p. 165.
30. Joseph J. Hill, "Ewing Young in the Fur Trade of the Far Southwest, 1822-1834," Oregon Historical
Quarterly, XXIV (March 1923), 1-35.
31. LeRoy R. and Ann W. Hafen, The Old Spanish Trail (Glendale, California, Arthur H. Clark, 1954), pp.
158-65.
15
discourse till they fell flat on their faces, take the earth from under his
moccasins and sprinkle it on their heads; and as he closed would rise upon
their knees and worship him. Majestically would he raise them, or order
Wolfskill to raise them upon their feet, bid them kiss his rifle, in token of respect
for the Great Father at Washington and be seated at his side. The presents,
which were the chief object of regard after all, and to obtain which they would
worship anything, were distributed, and Yount permitted them to taste a morsel
from his dish.32
The traders then continued to California, ascending the Sevier River via Clear Creek Fork,
a variation of the Smith route. It is probable that they came out of the mountains by the
canyon that debouches near Little Salt Lake.
The Old Spanish Trail was the first charted track across the Great Basin. The journeys of
Ewing Young, Armijo, and most important, the Wolfskill-Yount party, mark the beginning of
travel along an established trail from New Mexico to California. The increasing economic
significance of the Pacific Slope gave impetus to travel westward, and, as a result, the
Great Basin became a corridor to California.33
Emigrant Trails to California
The southern section of the Great Basin, through which the Old Spanish Trail passed, was
not the only corridor to California. Between 1830 and 1850 thousands of emigrants would
pass through the northern part of the Great Basin on their way to new homes in California.
Spurred by the reports of mountain men and the dreams of empire espoused by promoters
of the Manifest Destiny of the United States, interest in the West as a place for future
settlement, particularly the fertile lands of California and Oregon, spread rapidly throughout
the eastern part of the country. To many people the idea of moving beyond the Rocky
Mountains had great appeal as a result of the continuing American pioneering spirit and of
unstable economic conditions in the East brought on by the Panic of 1837. Thus, the
stage was set for one of the greatest mass migrations in American history as thousands
of people began the trek to the Pacific Slope. While many settlers followed the Oregon
Trail to the Northwest, others took the southwesterly Overland Trail through the northern
Great Basin to California. By 1850 the tide of settlers to California over this "highway" had
swelled to enormous proportions.
The Overland Trail became the famous highroad of the West that followed the Humboldt
River for some 300 miles, traversed the Forty-Mile Desert to the Truckee River, and then
crossed the Sierra Nevada to the Central Valley in California. This route had the
advantage of following a life-giving desert stream that cut through the numerous mountain
ranges and barren desolation of the northern Great Basin, providing varying amounts of the
necessities required by the California-bound travelers - water, wood for fuel, pasturage for
livestock, and wild game for food.
An important section of the Overland Trail was explored and later established by Joseph
R. Walker, a long-time fur trader, trapper, and trailsman of the West who was one of the
leaders of the Walker-Bonneville Party in 1833-34. Although Jedediah Smith had previously
crossed the Great Basin and Peter Skene Ogden and his successor, John Work, had
explored the Humboldt River thoroughly, no Euroamerican up to that time had recorded
32. LeRoy R. Hafen, "Mountain Men Before the Mormons," Utah Historical Quarterly, XXVI (October 1958),
318-19, and Hafen and Hafen, Old Spanish Trail, p. 149.
33. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, pp. 166-68.
16
movement southward to the Carson Sink and Walker River or, more importantly, had
discovered a viable mountain pass over the Sierra Nevada. As a result of the Walker-
Bonneville expedition, Benjamin Bonneville, the primary instigator of the party, produced two
maps that contributed little new geographical knowledge of the Great Basin but are
important nevertheless to the history of travel across the Great Basin for they showed that
the Humboldt River was the best course to follow in a journey across the wide expanse.34
The adventures of the Walker-Bonneville Party, so ably presented in popular prose by
Washington Irving, attracted the attention of many people living east of the Rocky
Mountains. Such tales suggested possibilities of developing this virgin country. One
person who was particularly fascinated by these thrilling stories was a young schoolteacher
in Kansas territory named John Bidwell. Because of his enthusiastic interest for what lay
beyond the Rockies, he was to lead the first overland emigrant train to California through
the Great Basin in 1841 over a large section of the trail that the Walker-Bonneville Party
had established.
The Bidwell-Bartleson Party, as it came to be known, reached the Central Valley of
California in October 1841 after a harrowing journey of considerable hardship during which
they had to chart their own course over wide stretches of the Great Basin. The
significance of the party to the history of the Great Basin lies in the fact that it was the
first group of emigrants who saw the Great Salt Lake and the Humboldt River as well as
other physiographic features of the land of interior drainage. Although the party was forced
to abandon its covered wagons near Pilot Peak on the western edge of the Great Salt Lake
Desert, the members of the party were the first to bring such wagons into the present
states of Utah and Nevada, and thus traversed a large part of the Great Basin by means
of this wheeled vehicle. The wife and daughter of Benjamin Kelsey accompanied the group
and thus were the first white women to enter the Great Basin. Of greater importance is
the fact that the journey of this party revealed that the crossing of western America, even
of some of the barren stretches of the Great Basin, could be accomplished by emigrants.
Thus, the party set the stage for the great westward movement which was soon to follow.35
The stream of emigration to California which began with the Bidwell-Bartleson Party did not
reach considerable proportions until 1849 with the advent of the California Gold Rush.
During the 1840s the new trail to California was refined, the most notable changes being
use of Donnor Pass in the Sierra Nevadas and the Hastings Cutoff, which diverted
California-bound traffic south of the Great Salt Lake across the extensive salt flats of
present-day Utah.36 Among the early groups that followed the general Overland Trail were
34. For more information on the Walker-Bonneville Party, see Edgeley W. Todd, ed., The Adventures of
Captain Bonneville, U.S.A., in the Rocky Mountains and the Far West, Digested from His Journal by Washington
Irving (Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1961); Wishart, Fur Trade of the American West, pp. 152-56; Edgely
W. Todd, "Benjamin L.E. Bonneville," and Ardis M. Walker, "Joseph R. Walker," in Mountain Men and the Fur Trade,
V, 45-63 and 361-80, respectively; Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, pp. 168-80; Douglas Sloane Watson, West
Wind: The Life Story of Joseph Reddeford Walker, Knight of the Golden Horseshoe (Los Angeles, 1934); and W.F.
Wagner, ed., The Narrative of Zenas Leonard (New York, Burrows Brothers Company, 1904).
35. F.N. Fletcher, "Early Nevada: The Period of Exploration 1776-1848," in James G. Scrugham, ed., Nevada:
A Narrative of the Conquest of a Frontier Land (3 vols., Chicago and New York, The American Historical Society,
Inc., 1935), I, 59-68, and Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, pp. 180-86.
36. The Hastings Cutoff, opened in 1846, entered present Nevada south of Pilot Peak, continued over Silver
Zone Pass and through Jasper Pass in the Pequop Mountains. The trail followed the east base of the Ruby
Mountains before cutting south and crossing the Rubys via Overland Pass. Then it swung back north along
Huntington Creek and the South Fork of the Humboldt River to the California Trail. McLane, "Exploration and
Early Mapping in Eastern Nevada," p. 2.
17
the Walker-Chiles Party in 1843, the Stevens-Townsend-Murphy Company in 1844, and the
Russell-Bryant and Donnor-Reed parties in 1847.37
While the Bidwell-Bartleson Party was making its historic trek to the Pacific Coast through
the northern part of the Great Basin, the Workman-Rowland Party traveled from Santa Fe
to Los Angeles over the Old Spanish Trail, thus becoming the first emigrant party to reach
California by way of the southern approach. Although this trail never attained the
importance of the Overland Trail, it had the advantage of avoiding the Sierra Nevadas, and
the western segment was used by some emigrant groups in winter when snow closed the
mountain passes. This artery would later become important for emigration purposes when
the Mormons established settlements in Las Vegas and San Bernardino during the 1 850s.38
In contrast to the Overland and Old Spanish trails the central route that traversed the Great
Basin through the Snake Range was never used as an early corridor to California by
emigrant groups. This was due to a variety of factors, including the lack of a permanent
water supply and the obstacle of higher and more numerous mountain ranges that
discouraged exploration.39
Early Exploration Surveys
Although the Great Basin became a corridor to California during the 1830s and 1840s, the
emigrant trains using the Overland and Old Spanish trails did not gain any realistic
understanding of the geographical nature of the land of interior drainage. Most of the
emigrants held erroneous geographical conceptions, for in general they followed maps
showing mythical rivers and were caught up primarily with the day-to-day dangers and
hardships of the journey. It was not until 1844, the same year in which the Stevens-
Townsend-Murphy Company crossed the Overland Trail, that John Charles Fremont, the
sometimes enigmatic and romantic adventurer yet dynamic and scientific explorer,
pathmarker, and topographer, made his important announcement while traversing much of
the same region - the area lying between the Wasatch and Sierra Nevada mountains is
a land of interior drainage. Hence Fremont gave this region the appellation "Great Basin."40
Earlier in 1841, while the Bidwell-Bartleson Party was still on the Overland Trail, an
expedition led by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes of the U.S. Navy had been sent to the Pacific
Ocean to visit the Oregon country and California. The expedition surveyed those parts of
the Pacific Coast in an attempt to discover if a river of sizable magnitude entered the
Pacific Ocean south of the Columbia. The results of this expedition were two maps which
display a composite of the geographical conceptions that were then current, and thus they
37. Clifford L. Stott, Search for Sanctuary: Brigham Young and the White Mountain Expedition (Salt Lake
City, University of Utah Press, 1984), p. 9.
38. Robert Starr Waite, "The Proposed Great Basin National Park: A Geographical Interpretation of the
Southern Snake Range, Nevada (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1974), Part
II, pp. 502-03.
39. Ibid., Part II, p. 503. For more data on the trails to California, see Fletcher, "Early Nevada," I, 101-10,
and Brooke D. Mordy and Donald L. McCaughey, Nevada Historical Sites (Reno, Desert Research Institute, 1968)
pp. 229-34.
40. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, p. 188. For a summary of Fremont's career and contributions to western
exploration, see Allan Nevins, "A Record Filled With Sunlight," American Heritage, VII (June 1956), 12-15, 18-19,
106-07. Further historical perspective on Fremont's exploration in the Great Basin may be found in Bobby Gene
Ramsey, "Scientific Exploration and Discovery in the Great Basin From 1831-1891 (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Brigham Young University, 1972).
18
exhibited the general cartographic resources which existed at the time. Wilkes used the
term "Great Sandy Desert" in the Great Basin with the legend, "The country is extremely
Rocky and rough, the Rivers running through Clift Rocks." 1
Not satisfied with these findings Congress commissioned another scientific expedition in
1842. This was the first expedition led by Fremont, a captain in the U.S. Army Corps of
Topographical Engineers who was destined to become one of the most controversial figures
in western American history. The expedition materialized through the efforts of Thomas
Hart Benton, U.S. Senator from Missouri and father-in-law of Fremont, when he brought the
matter of western territories before Congress in 1842. The expedition, which included
Charles Preuss as topographer and Kit Carson, a long-time mountain man and scout, as
guide, proceeded up the Platte River to the Sweetwater and reached South Pass on August
8, 1842, before exploring the Green River region and the Wind River mountain range.42
Of far greater importance to the history of the Great Basin was Fremont's Second
Expedition, the ostensible object of which was to connect his explorations of 1842 with
the Wilkes surveys along the Pacific Coast in 1841. The party left Kaw Landing (present-
day Kansas City) on May 29, 1843, and followed up the northernmost fork of the Kansas
River before reaching the Oregon Trail on the banks of the Sweetwater. Upon reaching
South Pass, Fremont and his men journeyed to the Green River, thence to the Bear River
of the Great Basin, and then proceeded down to Great Salt Lake. The party left the lake
and went north to Fort Hall on the Snake River. The men proceeded to The Dalles,
making an accurate survey of the emigrant trail to Oregon. Then Fremont turned south
from the Columbia River reentering the Great Basin, this time in present-day south-central
Oregon. Proceeding southward into what is now southeast Oregon and northwest Nevada,
he struck the bodies of water now known as Klamath Lake and Warner Lake, pitching
camp on December 26 near the forty-second parallel which now forms the boundary
between the states of Oregon and Nevada. The party traveled through the Snake Creek,
Granite Creek, and Black Rock deserts before reaching a curiosity he named Pyramid Lake.
Following the Truckee River to near the present site of Wadsworth, Nevada, the group then
marched southward to the Carson River. After crossing the Sierra Nevada to present
Bridgeport Valley, California, the party recrossed the mountains via Carson Pass and
viewed Lake Tahoe for the first time. After proceeding to Sutter's Fort in present
Sacramento, California, the party crossed Tehachapi Pass and reached the Old Spanish
Trail a few miles north of El Cajon Pass. The group followed the trail to the present site
of Las Vegas and southwestern Utah and then moved north to reach the Sevier River and
Utah Lake on May 24, 1844, before crossing the Wasatch Mountains through Spanish Fork
Canyon enroute to the East.43
As the expedition moved northeastward from present-day Las Vegas toward the Sevier
River and Sevier Lake it came within some 90 miles east of the Snake Mountains. In his
report for that part of the journey during May 13-23, Fremont made the following notations:
After we left the Vegas we had the gratification to be joined by the famous
hunter and trapper, Mr. Joseph Walker . . . and who now became our guide.
41. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, p. 205.
42. jbjd., pp. 208-09, and Oregon and California: The Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, Oregon
and California by Brevet Col. J.C. Fremont (Buffalo, George H. Derby and Co., 1851), pp. 5-122.
43. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, pp. 209-14. For more information on Fremont's Second Expedition, see
M. Morgan Estergreen, Kit Carson: A Portrait in Courage (Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), pp.
101-22, and Allan Nevins, ed., Narratives of Exploration and Adventure by John Charles Fremont (New York,
London, and Toronto, Longmans, Green & Co., 1956), pp. 308-426.
19
May 13th- We remained one day at this noted place of rest and refreshment;
and, resuming our progress in a northeastwardly direction, we descended into
a broad valley, the water of which is tributary to Sevier Lake. The next day we
came in sight of the Wah-satch range of mountains on the right, white with
snow, and here forming the southeast part of the Great Basin. Sevier Lake,
upon the waters of which we now were, belonged to the system of lakes in the
eastern part of the basin - of which the Great Salt Lake and its southern limb,
the Utah Lake, were the principal - toward the region of which we were now
approaching. We travelled for several days in this direction, within the rim of
the Great Basin, crossing little streams which bore to the left for Sevier Lake,
and plainly seeing, by the changed aspect of the country, that we were entirely
clear of the desert and approaching the regions which appertained to the system
of the Rocky Mountains.
May 17th - After four hundred and forty miles of travelling on a trail which
served for a road, we again found ourselves under the necessity of exploring
a track through the wilderness. The Spanish trail had borne off to the
southeast, crossing the Wah-satch range. Our course led to the northeast,
along the foot of that range, and leaving it on the right. The mountain
presented itself to us under the form of several ridges, rising one above the
other, rocky, and wooded with pine and cedar; the last ridge covered with snow.
Sevier River, flowing northwardly to the lake of the same name, collects its
principal waters from this section of the Wah-satch chain.
We had now entered a region of great pastoral promise, abounding with fine
streams; the rich bunch grass soil that would produce wheat, and indigenous
flax - growing as if it had been sown. Consistent with the general character
of its bordering mountains, this fertility of soil and vegetation does not extend
far into the Great Basin. Mr. Joseph Walker, our guide, and who has more
knowledge of these parts than any man I know, informed me that all the country
to the left was unknown to him, and that even the Digger tribes, which
frequented Lake Sevier, could tell him nothing bout it.
May 20th - We met a band of Utah Indians, headed by a chief who had
obtained the American or English name of Walker, by which he is quoted and
well known. They were all mounted, armed with rifles, and use their rifles well.
The chief had a fusee, which he had carried slung, in addition to his rifle.
They were journeying slowly toward the Spanish trail, to levy their usual tribute
upon the great Californian caravan. They were robbers of a higher order than
those of the desert. They conducted their depredations with form, and under
the color of trade, and toll for passing though their country. Instead of attacking
and killing, they affect to purchase - taking the horses they like, and giving
something nominal in return. The chief was quite civil to me. He was
personally acquainted with his namesake, our guide, who made my name known
to him. He knew of my expedition of 1842; and, as tokens of friendship and
proof that we had met, proposed an interchange of presents. We had no great
store to choose out of; so he gave me a Mexican blanket, and I gave him a
very fine one which I had obtained at Vancouver.
May 23d. - We reached Sevier River - the main tributary of the lake of the
same name - which, deflecting from its northern course, here breaks from the
mountains to enter the lake, it was really a fine river, from eight to twelve feet
20
deep; and, after searching in vain for a fordable place, we made little boats (or
rather rafts) out of bulrushes, and ferried across.44
Fremont's encampment at Utah Lake near the end of the expedition is one of great
significance in the history of the Great Basin as well as in the history of the entire West.
It was here, while encamped near the place where the Dominguez-Escalante Expedition
had stayed some 68 years earlier, that he came to the conclusion that the vast expanse
between the Wasatch and Sierra Nevada mountains was a land of interior drainage, truly
a "Great Basin" as he thus named it. One of the most important maps in the history of
western American cartography was the product of this expedition - a map showing a void
between the Wasatch and Sierra Nevada on which Fremont included a significant legend:
"The Great Basin: Diameter 11° of latitude, 10° of longitude; elevation above the sea
between 4,000 and 5,000 feet; surrounded by lofty mountains; contents almost unknown,
but believed to be filled with rivers and lakes which have no communication with the sea,
deserts and oases which have never been explored, and savage tribes which no traveler
has seen or described."45
On August 16, 1845, Fremont set out on a third expedition to the West during which he
made a survey of the Great Salt Lake, determined the most direct route to the Pacific
Coast, and explored the country southwest of the Sierra Nevada. After making
observations of the Great Salt Lake in September and October, Fremont and his party
made the first crossing of the Great Salt Lake Desert to Pilot Peak in late October before
crossing the drainage basin of the Humboldt River, which he named in honor of Baron
Alexander von Humboldt, the renowned German geographer who first published the results
of the Escalante-Domfnguez Expedition in his four-volume Political Essay on the Kingdom
of New Spain.
Near Whitton Springs Fremont divided his party into two groups in order to more thoroughly
explore the region. The larger party continued westward along the Humboldt River under
the leadership of Edward Kern with guidance from Joseph R. Walker. Fremont, with a
party of ten men including several Delaware Indians, continued in a southwesterly direction
around Spruce Mountain and wandered through the northern end of the Medicine Range
before crossing the gravel bar between Franklin and Ruby lakes. The party crossed the
Ruby Mountains at Harrison Pass, thus coming within 100 miles of the Snake Range.
Continuing westward, he passed north of present-day Eureka, traversed the valley on the
east side of the Toiyabe Range, and continued on to Walker Lake where he met the other
party in November, naming the body of water in Walker's honor. In his description of the
trek across modern Nevada, Fremont wrote:
I took leave of the main party and set out on a line westward directly across
the basin, the look of the country inducing me to turn somewhat to the south.
We lost no time in pressing forward; but the tortuous course rendered
unavoidable by the necessity of using just such passes as the mountains gave,
44. John Charles Fremont, Memoirs of My Life (Chicago and New York, Belford, Clarke & Company, 1887),
pp. 384-87. Fremont's report may also be found in "A Report of the Exploring Expedition to Oregon and North
California in the Years 1843-44," in Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains by John Charles
Fremont (Readex Microprint Corporation, 1966), pp. 270-73.
45. "A Report of the Exploring Expedition to Oregon and North California in the Years 1843-44," in Report of
the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains by John Charles Fremont, pp. 274-77, and Map of an Exploring
Expedition to the Rocky Mountains in the Year 1842 and to Oregon and North California in the Years 1843-44 by
Brevet Capt. J.C. Fremont of the Corps of Topographical Engineers Under the Orders of Col. J.J. Abert, Chief of
the Topographical Bureau, Manuscripts Division, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. See Appendix
A for the complete text of Fremont's observations on the Great Basin written at Utah Lake on May 24, 1844.
21
and in searching for grass and water, greatly lengthened our road. Still, it gave
me knowledge of the country.
We succeeded in finding always good camping grounds, usually availing
ourselves of the Indian trails which skirted the foot of the ridges. When well
marked, showing use, these never failed to lead to water, and the larger the
trail, the more abundant the water. This we always found at the edge of the
mountain, generally in some ravine, and quickly sinking into the ground, never
reaching the valley except in seasons of rain. Doubtless artesian wells would
find it and make fertile these valleys, which now are dry and barren.
Traveling along the foot of a mountain on one of these trails, we discovered a
light smoke rising from a ravine, and riding quietly up, found a single Indian
standing before a little sagebrush fire over which was hanging a small earthen
pot filled with sage-bush squirrels. Another bunch of squirrels lay near it, and
close by were his bow and arrows. He was deep in a brown study, thinking
perhaps of some game trail which he had seen and intended to follow that
afternoon, and did not see or hear us until we were directly upon him, his
absorbed thoughts and the sides of the ravine cutting off sounds. Escape for
him was not possible and he tried to seem pleased, but his convulsive start and
wild look around showed that he thought his end had come. And so it would
- abruptly - had the Delawares been alone. With a deprecating smile he
offered us part of his pot-au-fen and his bunch of squirrels. I reassured him
with a friendly shake of the hand and a trifling gift. He was a good-looking
young man, well made, as these Indians usually are, and naked as a worm.
A day or two after we saw mountain sheep for the first time in crossing the
basin. None were killed, but that afternoon Carson killed an antelope. That
day we traveled late, making for the point of a wooded mountain where we had
expected to find water, but on reaching it found only the dry bed of a creek
where there was sometimes running water. It was too late to go farther and I
turned up the creek bed, taking the chance to find it above, as the mountain
looked promising. Well up toward the top of the mountain, nearly two thousand
feet above the plain, we came upon a spring where the little basin afforded
enough for careful use. A bench of the mountain near by made a good
camping ground, for the November nights were cool and newly fallen snow
already marked out the higher ridges of the mountains. With grass abundant,
and pine wood and cedars to keep up the night fires, we were well provided
for.46
After the rendezvous at Walker Lake the expedition again divided into two groups which
crossed the Sierra Nevadas at Donnor and Walker passes to enter the Central Valley of
California. The trip was hurried because Fremont's major purpose was to make a military
reconnaissance in California and to assist the American settlers in the event hostilities
broke out with Mexico.47
The Bear Flag Revolt and subsequent developments prevented Fremont from writing a
report of his third expedition such as had followed the first and second. Thus, this
expedition across the Great Basin has not received the attention it deserves. In making
this trek, however, he had blazed the most feasible trail of the time across present-day
46. Nevins, e<±, Narratives of Exploration and Adventure, pp. 449-51.
47. The remainder of the expedition, including Fremont's exploits in California, are discussed at length in
Estergreen, Kit Carson, pp. 129-51.
22
Nevada. Prior to this time maps and geographic texts had represented the entire Great
Basin, from the Great Salt Lake to the Sierras, as a sandy barren plain without water or
grass. Fremont proved, as he wrote to his wife, that instead of being a plain, the region
was
traversed by parallel ranges of mountains, their summits white with snow
(October), while below, the valleys had none. Instead of a barren country, the
mountains were covered with grasses of the best quality, wooded with several
varieties of trees, and containing more deer and mountain sheep than we had
seen in any previous part of our voyage.48
The significance of the third expedition by Fremont has been ably described by Edwin L
Sabin in his Kit Carson Days. He noted:
The map submitted by Fremont in 1848, based upon his explorations of 1845,
was very different from his map of the Great Basin of 1844. Where much had
been white, save for the arching legend "Unknown," now much was etched
with physical symbols and place names. And although the Fremont southern
route was improved upon and shortened by later explorations, although, in
consequence of the California troubles, his feat of 1845 received less notice by
the world and was less exploited by himself than his previous feats, he really
pioneered a permanent feasible trail between the Salt Lake and Northern
California. Moreover, he and his stalwarts were the first white men, as he
rightfully asserts, to make a survey of this, the prospector's end of Nevada, long
thereafter to be terra incognita save to the emigrant, the stage, the pack
animals, the Mormon station-keepers, the treasure delver, and the wandering
Indian.49
Fremont, who would make east-west crossings of the Rocky Mountains and the Great Basin
to California in 1 848-49 and 1 853-54 to search for feasible transcontinental railroad routes,
would become known as one of the great explorers of the American West. While little of
his exploratory work was accomplished in regions not previously visited by Euroamericans,
he is celebrated in the history of exploration as the first person to write an accurate
account of the general physical features of the region between South Pass and the Pacific
Ocean. His descriptive narrative of the best routes across the Great Basin and of the
passes over the Sierra Nevada Mountains, combined with his glowing accounts of
California, did much to stimulate emigration into that area and show that Fremont was a
geographer with a real understanding of the concept of a region as a natural unit. While
his surveys of South Pass, the Great Salt Lake, the Humboldt River, and Donnor Pass
were valuable additions to geographical knowledge, his greatest scientific achievement was
the discovery of the true nature of the Great Basin of North America.50
48. Quoted in Allan Nevins, Fremont: Pathmarker of the West (New York, London, and Toronto, Longmans,
Green and Co., 1955), pp. 213.
49. Edwin L Sabin, Kit Carson Days: 1809-1868 (2 vols., Chicago, A.C. McClurg and Company, 1914), I,
396-97. Fremont accompanied his 1848 map with a Geographical Memoir Upon Upper California In Illustration of
His Map of Oregon and California. A copy of the portion of this work dealing with the Great Basin may be seen
in Appendix B.
50. Cline, Exploring the Great Basin, pp. 215-16.
23
CHAPTER THREE
MORMON EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT DURING THE 1850s
The first permanent Euroamerican colonization efforts in the Great Basin commenced with
the arrival of the Mormon pioneers in the Great Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847.1 Under
the leadership of Brigham Young these early settlers went west in search of sanctuary
where they could find religious freedom and escape the persecution they had endured in
the East and Midwest since the early 1830s. As Mormon settlers continued to stream into
Great Salt Lake Valley they built their first settlements along the fertile base of the Wasatch
Mountains. By the mid-1 850s some forty settlements had been founded from Cache Valley
in the north to Washington in the south. In addition, the Mormons had fanned out,
establishing the distant settlements of Carson Valley at the foot of the Sierra Nevada, San
Bernardino, Las Vegas, and Fort Lemhi in present-day Idaho. Among the reasons for
establishment of these colonies were: (1) relief of local population pressure in the Great
Salt Lake Valley; (2) occupation of good agricultural land to provide increasing foodstuffs
for the growing Mormon population; (3) occupation of strategic points commanding the
entrances to the intermountain country; (4) conversion and instruction of the Indians; and
(5) production of various commodities such as lead and copper.2
By the mid-1 850s reports of a strange white mountain west of present-day Fillmore, Utah,
had been carried into the Mormon settlements by desert Indian tribes. In 1855 Brigham
Young decided to open an Indian mission in the vicinity of White Mountain, selecting Bishop
David Evans of Lehi to lead the expedition and plant the settlement.3 Near Fillmore Evans
divided the 30-40 elders who had been assigned to the mission. Those with the stronger
horses were to accompany him in selecting a mission site, while the others were instructed
to go to Beaver Valley and plant a crop. The White Mountain Mission expedition is
significant to this study since it produced the first written record of exploration in present-
day Great Basin National Park.4
Eleven White Mountain missionaries left Fillmore with Evans on May 28, accompanied by
two Pahvant Ute Indians they hired as guides to take them across the desert to the west.
By way of Clear Lake, the Sevier River, Antelope Springs, and what is now called Dome
Canyon, they made their way into what they called Little Desert Valley, now White Valley.
The party crossed what it called the Antelope Hills [Confusion Range] into "Grease Wood
Valley" [Snake Valley] on the modern Utah-Nevada border, arriving at "Mound Springs"
[Knoll Springs].5
After leaving the springs the men traveled in a southerly direction some ten miles before
coming on June 1 to "a beautiful creek" which they named "Snipe Creek" [Snake Creek].
Here was "a moist bottom land, producing the wire grass, rushes, and broad leaf grass."
1. A summary of the events surrounding Mormon settlement in Great Salt Lake Valley may be seen in Ray
Allen Billington, Westward Expansion: A History of the American Frontier (New York, The Macmillan Company,
1949), pp. 532-49.
2. Richard D. Poll, ed., Utah's History (Provo, Brigham Young University Press, 1978), pp. 141-49.
3. The White Mountain Mission was named after present-day Crystal Peak, a unique sandstone mountain
in the Confusion Range in Millard County, Utah, which appears white in contrast to the surrounding mountains.
4. Wesley R. Law, "Mormon Indian Missions - 1855" (Unpublished M.S. thesis, Brigham Young University,
1959), p. 81.
5. Wheat, Mapping the Transmississippi West, I, 121.
25
According to Ezra Granger Williams, who wrote a report to Heber C. Kimball on June 1 1 ,
1855, describing the expedition, the men
camped here for the night to recruit our animals. They enjoyed it well, this
being the first place on the route that they seemed willing to stay. Previous
to this time we have had to watch them very closely to keep them from
retreating.
On June 2 the party left "Snipe Creek" and "traveled a little south of west to the base of
the Pe-up Mountain, [Wheeler Peak] as the Indians called it, signifying "big mountain." As
they approached Pe-up Mountain on June 2 Williams wrote:
This is a steady inclined plain of about fifteen miles, covered with sage and
greasewood. Soil clay, alkali, and gravelly and nearer the mountain stone.
The north part of this valley, the soil is very light, like ashes, and so much
charged with alkali that it is rendered useless for grass or culture; here we
found several excellent springs, named Mountain Springs.
After camping for the night the men decided "to ascend this mountain [Wheeler Peak] and
thereby command a view of the whole country round about at a glance." Williams
described an encounter with local Indians as the party prepared to climb the mountain:
Accordingly, Brothers Evans, Ray S. Nebeker, Geo. Nebeker, Collet and myself,
with Nioquitch, our guide, set out early in the morning. We rode our horses
some three or four miles, sent the horses back to camp. I ought to have
named that there were two Indians came to our camp at Snipe Creek; some
connection of Nioquitch and a young man of the Snake digger tribe. They
seemed quite pleased with us and stayed in camp with us, and in the morning
went for others to come to us. They came to us at Mountain Springs, but no
others came; they started for the Snakes with us on our way to the mountain.
They turned to go over a ridge, then an Indian called to them from a high rocky
peak. He was answered by Nioquitch, and after a long persuasion, to come
down to us, he came down the craggy rocks and crossed the creek. He then
had a fair view of us, as he looked up and came to a halt stand at us, half
turned round as if ready to run. Our guide chided him somewhat, called him
a fool and at last prevailed on him to come to us, by going to him and forcing
him by the arm till Brother Evans reached him. We shook hands with him and
gave him some crackers and dried meat. He soon became conscious that we
were not going to hurt him. He talked quite freely with earnestness and oratory,
and finally said he would get his men (as he proved to be a chief) and come
to our camp. We parted. He built a large smoke to call his nation together and
came to camp. He was well treated; he enjoyed it. He said he was willing to
have us come among them and even desired us to come and improve their
land.
After this encounter the men began their ascent. Williams elaborated on the climb:
We started on up the mountain. Brothers Evans and Collet found it too hard
for them after getting up half way and returned to camp and found this Snake
chief in camp with some others of his band. We were the first white folks they
ever saw. The rest of us proceeded up the mountain and after traveling some
distance above all vegetation, including over a pile of rocks, I being ahead,
discovered a roll of buckskin, and then a little to the right was an old squaw hid
behind a rock. She seemed a good deal frightened. I called to our guide who
talked with her. She talked and laughed quite cheerfully. We passed on and
26
at last gained the summit. I tell you we were high up in the world; the air was
as light and buoyant. We felt first rate, but grew very tired, as it was a hard
and a long climb. We now needed a telescope to discern objects, as far as the
way was open to our view, but the lenses of our eyes were not strong enough
to discern objects as far as we could like. We were then nearer the valley on
the west side of the mountain, but were so high up and the atmosphere being
a little smoky, we could not form an opinion as to the soil and vegetation,
whether it was grass or greaseweed, but looked like a very pretty valley, with
snow capped mountains on the east and west. We could see mountain after
mountain to the west and looked as though there might be a better prospect of
good valleys in that direction or to the southwest, but our guides seem to be
unwilling to go farther. This peak was named Williams Peak,6 as I was the first
white man that gained its exalted summit. Brother Geo. Nebeker discovered a
lake at the head of the canyon below, named Lake George. There is still
another lake further down the canyon. It occupies about an acre or more of
ground. We started down the peak in the direction of this lake. We traveled
down on rocks, sometimes letting ourselves down from rock to rock with care
to be right side up and finally came down on a bed of snow that laid on the
north side of the mountain. The timber below presented a curious appearance,
the most of which was pinion pine, very low and from three to four feet thick.
They were divested of their covering, with the exception of a small strip on the
north side of the trees, and on the top a little green foliage, the tops and south
of the trees being bare and very light colored. I couldn't think of anything else
to compare them to than a canyon full of elk. After long and tedious descent,
we came among these pines and to the lake with pure cold water, and snow
on the north of it, two and three feet deep. Little further down we came to fir
poplar, and the tall, slim pines of moderate size. We noticed some fine poles,
but they are too far up the canyon to reach them with team for a long time yet.
Still farther down we came to the canyon stream. I was anxious to see its
fountain head, but have not time to look about much. This is large stream,
somewhat larger than City Creek, and affords much more water. We now came
to the mountain mahogany forest, the largest and finest I ever saw. It is
situated on the north side of the canyon, with a spontaneous growth of bunch
grass. Beneath it is quite steep, but not so steep as I have seen orchards
upon. They present an appearance of as old an orchard as any I ever saw.
This extends two or three miles to the mouth of the canyon. There are several
large trees at the mouth of the canyon, something like the White Pine. We got
back to camp about five or six o'clock, pretty well exhausted, having spent but
little time for rest.
6. Wheeler Peak has had a variety of names since the Mormons gave the mountain its first Euroamerican
appellation in 1855. During a military reconnaissance through the Great Basin in 1855 Lieutenant Colonel Edward
J. Steptoe named the mountain in honor of Jefferson Davis, then Secretary of War under President Franklin Pierce
and later President of the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. Four years later in 1859 James H.
Simpson named the mountain Union Peak, apparently because he thought the appellation more appropriate as the
nation edged toward war. For many years thereafter, however, the mountain was known locally as Jeff Davis Peak.
It is said that two miners, while exploring the area either during or soon after the Civil War, named the two spires
forming the summit of the mountain Jeff Davis and Lincoln peaks, respectively, because one was born in the South
and the other in the North. In 1869 the mountain was named for George M. Wheeler, who was conducting
extensive military surveys in the region. Local settlers, however, generally referred to the mountain as Jeff Davis
Peak for several decades thereafter. U.S. Army, Engineer Department, Report Upon United States Geographical
Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian, in charge of Capt. Geo. M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army,
Under the Direction of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1889), Vol. I
- Geographical Report, pp. 29-30, and Fifth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to the Secretary
of the Interior, 1883-84 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1885), p. 342.
27
On June 4 the party traveled southeast along what is now known as Snake Creek for
"some three or four miles." Here at the site of present-day Garrison, Utah, the men
decided to establish a station. In his report Williams observed:
Came to rich soil, plenty grass, rushes and red clover, the leaf of which is long
and narrow; there are several good springs here, they probably arise from the
sinking of the canyon stream. This is the place picked for our station. We
nooned here and traveled some fifteen miles further southeast to Meadow
Creek. About half way we crossed some pretty good land that was densely
covered with large greasewood. We expect to clear this off to sow our grain
on and water it from Meadow Creek. We camped on Meadow Creek, just
below is a small lake, and above us is a meadow, some ten miles in length and
average two in width, with several species of grass just fit for cutting; that is,
a good portion of it.
The following day, on June 5, some of the men went hunting while others did further
exploring. Williams noted:
No game got today. On our way here yesterday some three or four of the
natives followed on after us, and on our way we killed a wild cat, a large snake,
about four feet long, and two rabbits. They took out the entrails of the wild cat
and rabbits, dug open an ant hill; put in the entrails, built a fire over them,
cooked them and ate them, then cooked the rabbits, snake and wild cat, all but
the back bone, and devoured all that evening. They had the back bone of the
cat next morning, and some contributions from our company in the way of
crackers, etc.
The men reached the foot of White Mountain on June 6. Here they halted to
gaze at the mysterious wonder which was only known by a faint, meager
description by the Indians. This mountain is a white sandstone rock,
interspersed with bastard diamonds. . . . These small diamonds almost cover
the ground for some distance before we reach the mountain, so much so as to
dazzle the eye of the traveler on a sunny day. There are some who say they
have been to the White Mountain, but I think not excepting the red men. I
claim that I was the first white man who ever stepped upon it and I have been
the highest up its rugged slopes.7
The exploration party arrived back in Fillmore on June 1 1 where men were waiting who had
been sent to plant crops in Beaver Valley. Those men reported that the valley was "the
poorest they had seen," and as a result had made no effort toward planting. Not
convinced of their findings, Evans went to examine the valley himself. He too could find
no suitable spot for farming and thus decided
to cross the desert with . . . [the] wagons and go to building a fort until time to
put in a crop for the fall. I commenced to inquire for spades and shovels and
found there was but three or four in the whole company. ... I therefore seen
at once that I could neither build fort or farm. I thought that under
considerations of this kind it was better for us to go home and get up the kind
7. Ezra Granger Williams to Heber C. Kimball, June 11, 1855, Journal History of the Church, June 11, 1855,
Archives, Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints, Salt Lake City, Utah (hereinafter referred to as LDS
Archives). A copy of this letter was found in U.S. Forest Service files provided to the National Park Service after
establishment of Great Basin National Park.
28
of a outfit that we wanted both to fort and to farm and go back in the fall
prepared to put in fall crops and build a fort.8
News of the White Mountain Mission reached Brigham Young. Discouraged by its
prospects, he wrote to the elders at Las Vegas on July 31:
We will probably abandon the White Mountain Mission, as the elders have
returned from that place, and send them to strengthen the Elk Mountain Mission
on Grand River.
However, attempts were made to revive interest in the White Mountain Mission in late
August. This is shown in a letter written by Heber C. Kimball to Franklin D. Richards:
David Evans, that headed the mission to the White Mountain south, had
returned, rather giving up their mission. We called upon them last Sabbath to
make preparations and return back again in two weeks, and build a fort, etc.,
as there are many Lamanites in that region.9
There is no indication that a further attempt was made to establish the mission.
Nevertheless, the party had explored a previously unknown region. Because of the difficult
accessibility of this area Mormon officials would send a 1 00-man exploration company there
in 1858 as part of Brigham Young's quest for a refuge in the White Mountain country for
the embattled Latter Day Saints.
During the intervening three years there was some Mormon activity in the White Mountain
country, a term which had come to mean the entire desert region west of Utah's southern
settlements. In 1857, for instance, Chauncey Webb, a Mormon, tracked his stolen horses
into Snake Valley where he treated with a band of hostile Indians for the return of his herd.
Mormon punitive expeditions were also launched in the western deserts in an unsuccessful
bid to capture the murderers of the Gunnison Party in 1853 (this topic will be discussed
later in this study). Ironically, the Pahvant Ute war chief Mashoquab, the one generally
blamed for the massacre, was Webb's guide in 1857, and the following year he guided the
White Mountain Expedition over some of the same ground.10
Brigham Young and his associates were far from satisfied that the potentialities of the
largely unknown desert country west of their southern settlements had been investigated
satisfactorily, and sooner or later they would undoubtedly have ordered new explorations.
As it happened, their hand was forced by the Utah Expedition, a 2,500-man detachment
of U.S. Army troops under the command of Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston sent to
suppress a supposed rebellion in Utah Territory in 1857-58.11 Young's first impulse was
to resist the troops, and he began to call Mormons in outlying settlements back to Salt
Lake Valley to help defend the area against the army and to provide for their safety so
they would not be left more vulnerable to attack in remote areas. In the event that these
defense efforts failed Young became enamored of the idea that somewhere in the West
there might exist an oasis area to which the Mormons could retreat before the troops, and
if necessary carry on guerrilla warfare from that desert stronghold. As a result, the White
8. David Evans, "Report of the White Mountain Mission," July 17, 1855, Journal History of the Church, July
17, 1855, LDS Archives. Portions of this letter are quoted in Law, "Mormon Indian Missions - 1855," p. 82.
9. The text of both letters may be found in Law, "Mormon Indian Missions - 1855," p. 83.
10. Stott, Search for Sanctuary, p. 16
11. Poll, ed., Utah's History, pp. 165-70.
29
Mountain country and contiguous territory were to be explored thoroughly by what became
known as the White Mountain Expedition.12
Two principal exploring parties were organized for the White Mountain Expedition. One was
assembled in the more northerly settlements of Utah and set out from Provo on March 20,
1858. This party was led by George Washington Bean, an accomplished 26-year-old Indian
interpreter, explorer, guide, and veteran of the Las Vegas Indian Mission. Another
prominent member of this group was Edson Barney, a 51 -year-old veteran of the Las
Vegas Indian Mission and recent captain of the Nauvoo Legion. The other party, led by
William H. Dame, was organized in the southern settlements a month later, and
rendezvoused at Iron Spring west of present-day Cedar City on April 23. The Dame group
was directed to explore west and north until it made contact with the Bean company.13
The task of the White Mountain Expedition and the sense of urgency under which it was
undertaken was ably described by Bean in his autobiography some twenty years later.
He stated:
About Mar. 1st [1858] Prest. Young called on me to make up a small company
and proceed to explore the Desert regions west of Fillmore & Beaver to find
hiding places for the people to flee to, and at the same time all north of Utah
Valley was to move everything of value except real pty. & improvements and
get south before the Johnson Army arrived. Instructions were given that SL
City & every place was to be burned & all property destroyed if it became
necessary.14
The 104-man contingent under Bean was "fitted out with animals, etc. for exploring, farming,
etc." and took much the same route west that had been used by the missionaries in 1855.
The party left Cedar Springs near present-day Holden, Utah, on April 3. According to
Bean's report to Brigham Young on June 7 the group
started across the valley in a south westerly direction, to the Sevier River. We
found the river bad crossing, deep with quicksand. We followed the river 15
miles and then struck west to Antelope Springs, 35 miles. Here we found good
grass and water for small companies. We then passed through Cache [Dome]
Canyon, which has a complete wall of rocks on each side. This canyon is
about five miles long and from 50 to 200 yards wide; thence across Saleratus
[White] Valley and over a range of low mountains into Long [Snake] Valley, then
across it, thence south west to Snake Creek, a small stream running east from
the White [Snake] Mountains.
Here on the present site of Garrison, Utah, the Bean party found the best, if not the only,
prospect for a settlement. Bean stated:
12. Wheat, Mapping the Transmississippi West, IV, 122.
13. Ibid, pp. 122-23; Stott, Search for Sanctuary, pp. 67-79, 84-85; Harry C. Dees, 3d., "The Journal of
George W. Bean," Nevada Historical Society Quarterly, XV (Fall 1972), 2-29; "Biographical Sketch of Edson Barney,"
LDS Archives; and Flora Diana Bean Home, comp., Autobiography of George Washington Bean: A Utah Pioneer
of 1847 and His Family Records (Salt Lake City, Utah Printing Company, 1945).
14. Autobiography, George Washington Bean, 1831-78, George Washington Bean Journals, Special Collections
- Manuscripts, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah. In 1945 an autobiography of Bean
was compiled by Flora Diana Bean Horine and printed in Salt Lake City. The portion of this work relating to the
White Mountain Expedition may be seen in Appendix C.
30
Here we found pretty good land and sufficient water to justify making a small
settlement. The best of pine timbers within a few miles, grass not very
convenient. This point is about one hundred and fifty miles from Cedar Springs.
There is also a stream coming from the south some three feet deep, and five
feet wide; it sinks just below where we located a farm, between it and Snake
Creek; it rises from springs about 25 miles from that point and there are
beautiful meadow spots on it. Here we left 45 men to carry on farming,
herding, etc.
To facilitate the founding of the settlement Edson Barney was elected president of the
mission.
After leaving the 45 men at the so-called Snake Creek Farm, Bean divided the remainder
of his group "into two companies for exploring, one going north west and the other south
west." Bean, who led the latter group over Sacramento Pass before crossing Spring Valley,
climbing over the Schell Creek Range via Cooper Canyon and Steptoe Creek, and following
the White River to Pahranagat Valley, observed:
We, of the latter party, crossed two valleys to the rim of the Great Basin,
exploring right and left, for springs and streams which we found at convenient
distances. Plenty of grass and wood on the mountains, but the vallies were
barren. The former party found some three or four streams of water and some
land suitable for farming purposes; also grass, wood and timber convenient; but
this lay too far north to settle according to our present instructions from Pres.
Young. We crossed the rim of the Basin and explored three vallies west
supposed to be the heads of the Muddy River. These valleys slope to the
south west, are warmer than any other. We found the northern parts are pretty
well supplied for camping purposes, with grass and springs of water at the
bases of the mountains. In the Middle Valley we met with Col. [William H.]
Dame with a company from Iron County on an exploring tour. At the western
part of our explorations we met with Indians who informed us that we were on
the borders of a great desert between us and the Sierra Nevadas. We took
observations from the highest peaks on this tract of desert, which served to
strengthen our faith in these statements. This point is about three hundred and
thirty miles from Cedar Springs by our route of travel, and probably about two
hundred and twenty five west in a straight line. Upon conferring with Col. Dame
in relation to further explorations, we divided the explored country south east of
this point, that we might more fully explore this remaining portion. Col. Dame
went south south east and our party east south east. He took with him about
28 men of our party, with a view of locating them in a suitable valley for farming
purposes. We traveled in the nearest possible direction for Beaver Canyon,
finding grass and water at convenient distances on the mountains; also plenty
of wood; but no land suitable for farming. The longest distance without water
was 50 miles. We struck the Beaver River about 16 miles below the Canyon.
Lower Beaver Valley contains a great amount of good farming land; there is
grass and wood in abundance. We traveled up the river bottom and through
the canyon. The crossings were very deep and dangerous for wagons. We
passed through without any serious accidents and arrived at Beaver City, May
31st, having traveled about 800 miles in a country never before trod by white
men, so far as we have any knowledge.
In the course of our travels, we crossed seven ranges of mountains and the
same number of valleys, the latter averaging from 10 to 30 miles in width, and
from 15 to 100 miles long; their general course is from north to south. We also
discovered that, what has generally been considered to be one great basin,
31
consists of several smaller basins, without connection with each other, except
by a junction of their respective rims.
Bean went on to describe in considerable detail a cave which is west of the Schell Creek
Range in Cave Valley and the Indians encountered by the party during its trek. He noted:
In the first valley west of the rim is discovered a large cave having numerous
smaller branches. The main cave is half a mile in length and varying in breadth
from five to sixty feet. The smaller caves or branches are from ten feet to one
hundred yards in length and from ten to twenty-five feet wide; they are from
seven to twenty-five feet high. The first half is perfectly dry, the remainder have
a damp clayey bottom. And we found three pools of water, cold but having a
mineral taste. There were thousands of tracks of human beings, also the
appearance of fires being lighted in many places, through the entire length of
the main cave. There was also the track of a wild animal, supposed to be that
of a Wolverine. The air in most parts of the cave was good, but rather warm
in some places. The entrance was about four feet high and six feet in breadth.
The mountain over the cave is low and of solid rock, probably not more than
eighteen to twenty feet from the natural ceiling of the cave. The Indians in the
immediate neighborhood, for generations past (according to their own
statements) have not had the hardihood to enter this cave, but when they saw
us go in and stop about an hour and return in safety, we prevailed upon one
brave to accompany us on our second exploration. They have a legend, that
two squaws went into the cave, a long time ago, and remained six months.
They went, in perfect nudity and returned dressed in fine buckskin and reported
they had found a large and beautiful valley inside, clothed, with vegetation,
timber, water, and filled with game of the choicest species. Also, a band of
Indians in an advanced state of civilization, being dressed like white men. They
assert the tracks we found were made by these subterranean inhabitants. I am
satisfied they were made by Indians in former times, going into the cave to get
clay to make earthenware, as numerous pieces of broken ware are scattered
over different portions of the country. It was probably a tribe called Moquis (or
white Indians of the Colorado valley); as we learned they once inhabited this
country.
The Indians who inhabit this region are scattered. We found a few on every
range of mountains in a most abject state of poverty, being almost naked and
living on such roots, reptiles and insects as they can gather. They looked as
poor and as weak as a man who had suffered a month's sickness. The most
of them call themselves Shoshones. They talk the Digger tongue. A few in
the south are Predes who exist in constant dread of the Tosanwick or White
Knifes, Pahantes and Utes, who rob them of their squaws and children, from
time to time. They seemed much pleased on becoming acquainted with us,
although at first they were so shy that we were compelled to follow them with
horses till they could run no further, in order to get to talk to them. They
desired us to continue with them.15
The aforementioned southern wing of the White Mountain Expedition under the leadership
of Dame was known as the Southern Exploring Company. Comprised of 66 men principally
from Parowan, Cedar City, and Beaver, the party left Parowan on April 23. By early May
15. Report of Geo. W. Bean's Explorations in the South Western Deserts of Utah Territory, as given by himself
to Pres. Young, June 7, 1858, Provo City, Utah Co., Utah, Manuscript History of the Church, Brigham Young Period,
1844-77, LDS Archives. A copy of this report was in the U.S. Forest Service files provided to the National Park
Service after establishment of Great Basin National Park.
32
they had reached the site of present Panaca where some began planting crops at Meadow
Valley Farm. Some of the men continued to explore the surrounding region, including the
White River, Cave, Lake, Spring, and Steptoe valleys and portions of the Schell Creek,
Egan, and Snake ranges, at one point crossing the latter through present Sacramento Pass.
Altogether, the Southern Exploring Company had traveled some 1,245 miles during a three-
month period.16
Work on the Snake Creek Farm proceeded while the White Mountain Expedition parties
continued their exploration. By late May 1858 some fifty to sixty acres had been cleared,
and most of the grain was planted. Ditches and other improvements had been made to
provide for irrigation and protection. It was reported that the nights were cold and water
was scarce. While the settlers were generally faring well, some were suffering from colds
and rheumatism. The Indians were growing bolder, especially the Gosiutes and the White
Knives or Tosanwicks, the latter being a Shoshonean band that ranged south out of the
Humboldt River country. These Indians had stolen some of the horses from Snake Creek,
all but one, which the Indians had slaughtered, being recovered.17
By early summer 1858 the crisis involving the expeditionary force of U.S. Army troops in
Utah had passed. The proclamation of peace made the mission of the settlers on Snake
Creek, in Meadow Valley, and at Cave Spring in Badger (Clover) Valley unimportant - the
remnant of an antiquated policy. Nevertheless, their struggle for survival was just as real
as the day they left their homes.
Accordingly, in late June Brigham Young outlined his plans for the abandonment of Snake
Creek Farm. The settlement was to be abandoned as soon as the crops could be
harvested. The Indians were to be given "all the surplus vegetables and a portion of the
grains." In the meantime, he ordered the Fillmore and Beaver settlements to supply
replacements for the men who wanted to return to their homes.18
About the same time Bishop Brunson of Fillmore received word from David E. Bunnell, who
had been appointed by Barney to oversee the Snake Creek Farm while he undertook
further exploration, that "the water had dryed up so that there could not much be raised."
Bunnell reported that the creek had failed entirely so that it was impossible to irrigate the
wheat. After conferring with Apostle Orson Pratt, who had been in Fillmore since the
beginning of the exodus from Great Salt Lake Valley, Brunson sent Samuel P. Hoyt with
three men to Snake Creek to assess the situation and call in the mission if conditions were
as bad as had been reported. The reports proved accurate, and the mission was
abandoned, the last remnants of the expedition arriving back in Utah in late July and early
August.19
The White Mountain Expedition was conceived as an alternative solution to a difficult
problem - how to keep the Mormon kingdom intact while a hostile army invaded the Utah
settlements. When Brigham Young determined that fighting the U.S. Army was pointless,
he turned toward the interior deserts of the Great Basin, hoping to find an oasis or refuge
for the embattled Saints. During the spring of 1858 this alternative plan became the hope
of salvation for the Mormon kingdom. The White Mountain Expedition proceeded to the
16. Wheat, Mapping the Transmississippi West, IV, 125-36, and Stott, Search for Sanctuary, pp. 131-34, 210.
17. Stott, Search for Sanctuary, pp. 156, 182-83.
18. Ibid, pp. 203, 205.
19. Stott, Search for Sanctuary, p. 210, and Volney King, "Millard County, 1851-1875: Part 3," Utah Humanities
Review, I (July 1947), 261-78.
33
southwestern deserts of Utah Territory, penetrating deep into unexplored country. Even
when the danger of the armed conflict was past and a desert sanctuary had become
unnecessary, the expedition moved ahead surveying and mapping this vast terra incognita.
Although not widely recognized, the achievements of the White Mountain Expedition in
Great Basin exploration were considerable. Large areas of present-day western Utah and
eastern Nevada were charted and mapped for the first time. The expedition was the
largest exploring enterprise ever promoted by the Mormon church with a combined force
of more than 160 men. They combed virtually every mile of the country from the southern
Utah settlements west to present-day Nevada's Railroad Valley and from Duck Creek on
the north to the Pahranagat lakes in the south. Over a period of some four months they
covered more than 2,000 miles, producing journals and maps of their findings. Recorded
were their observations on mountains, valleys, streams, springs, climate, soil, water, grass,
fuel, Indians, and potential for settlement. Because of the confidential nature of the
expedition, however, these findings would not be generally known to the outside world for
many years.20
20. Stott, Search for Sanctuary, pp. 213-24. Mormon colonization efforts recommenced during the late 1870s
as a result of the high birthrate in Utah and economic stagnation brought on by a lengthy agricultural and mining
depression. Thus, the Mormons began the search for new population outlets. Two such Mormon farming
communities, Preston and Lund, were established in the White River Valley in 1898 by people from St. George
and Cedar City, Utah. Leonard J. Arrington, Great Basin Kingdom: An Economic History of the Latter Day Saints,
1830-1900 (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1958), pp. 382-83, and Rufus Wood Leigh, Nevada Place Names:
Their Origin and Significance (Salt Lake City, Desert News Press, 1964), p. 60.
34
CHAPTER FOUR
EXPLORATION AND SURVEYS FOR TRANSPORTATION
AND COMMUNICATION LINES ACROSS THE
CENTRAL ROUTE OF THE GREAT BASIN
DURING THE 1850s
INTRODUCTION
With the discovery of gold in California in 1848, and the subsequent acquisition of the
American Southwest from Mexico as the result of the Treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo that
same year, the United States became a contiguous nation stretching between the Pacific
and Atlantic oceans. To unify this sprawling new country, it became apparent that a
transcontinental transportation and communication system was needed to link the Pacific
coast and the inland areas with the East. This link was particularly important to the West
since the region was heavily dependent on transportation and communication for population
growth and mining, business, and agricultural development.
Three primary transcontinental arteries passed through the Great Basin by the late 1850s.
These routes were the Overland or Humboldt Trail in the north, the central route,
sometimes referred to as the Egan-Simpson Trail, and the Old Spanish Trail in the south.
All three routes had commenced as simple pioneer trails, later becoming wagon roads,
and would ultimately be followed by major transcontinental railroads or highways. In this
study attention will be focused on the exploration and surveys associated with the central
route that crossed northern Snake and Spring valleys because of its proximity to present-
day Great Basin National Park.
SURVEYS FOR A CENTRAL TRANSCONTINENTAL RAILROAD ROUTE: 1853-1854
Exploration for a central transcontinental railroad route between the 38th and 39th parallels
was placed under the command of Lieutenant John W. Gunnison of the U.S. Corps of
Engineers. With a party that included First Lieutenant Edward Griffin Beckwith, Third
Artillery, as assistant and R.H. Kern as topographer, along with a geologist, botanist, and
astronomer, Gunnison began a scientific exploration for a central route from Fort
Leavenworth on June 23, 1 853. Eventually crossing the Grand and then the Green rivers,
the party found a passage through the Wasatch and Pahvant mountains down into the
Great Basin near Utah Lake. Moving westward to the Sevier River Valley, Gunnison was
warned of a possible Indian uprising, resulting from the recent murder of an aged Pahvant
Indian by the Hudspeth Company, an emigrant party enroute to California. After purchasing
provisions in Fillmore, the Gunnison party passed through Deseret in Pahvant Valley, near
present-day Delta, but a few miles west of this settlement an attack was launched by a
Pahvant Indian band. In the ensuing struggle during the early morning of October 26,
1853, Gunnison and seven others were killed, and only four escaped. Thus, the Gunnison
survey ended abruptly, some 90 miles east of the Snake Range.1
The second phase of the central railroad route surveys began during the spring of 1854
when Lieutenant Beckwith received orders to explore the Great Basin "passing to the south
of the Great Salt Lake in the direction of the 'Sink' of Humboldt or Mary's river, thence
towards Mud lake [Black Rock Desert] and across the tributaries of Feather River, and
thence by the most practicable route to the valley of the Sacramento River." Accordingly,
1. William H. Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West: 1803-1863 (New Haven, Yale University
Press, 1959), pp. 283-86.
35
Beckwith's mapping expedition left Great Salt Lake on May 5 and entered present-day
Nevada and White Pine County about three miles south of the Elko County boundary. The
line of travel extended over Antelope Valley, passed the north end of Gosiute Lake which
Beckwith named, rounded the north end of the Cherry Creek Range, and then turned
northwest to Secret Pass at the south end of the East Humboldt Mountains. Near the
Cherry Creek Range Beckwith encountered an old man and young woman at a "Digger
wick-ey-up." The Indians, according to Beckwith, had "no shelter, no blankets - nothing
but a deer-skin or two, a few ground-rats, a little grass-seed in grass baskets . . . and a
variety of artemisia-seed ... for two of the most emaciated and mean-looking dogs I ever
saw." Instead of crossing Secret Pass, the party traveled south along the east base of the
Ruby Mountains, crossing the range via Overland Pass. The expedition forded Huntington
Creek on its way west to Lassen Meadows and then over the Sierra Nevada to California,
discovering two suitable passes into Sacramento Valley - Madeline Pass and Nobles Pass
near Honey Lake.2
In his report, which was highly favorable toward the 41st parallel route, Beckwith
emphasized that the line followed a remarkably straight course through relatively fertile
territory. Nevertheless, his report contained comments on the barren lands of the Great
Basin west of Salt Lake Valley and south of the Humboldt River Valley:
From the western shore of Great Salt Lake to the valley of Humboldt river, the
country consists alternately of mountains, in more or less isolated ranges, and
open, level plains, rising gradually from the level of the lake on the east to the
base of the Humboldt mountains on the west, or from 4,200 feet to 6,000 feet
above the sea. . . . Immediately west of this range there occurs a desert plain
of mud, about seventy miles in width from east to west, by its longest line,
which becomes narrowed to forty, and eventually entirely disappears as it
extends southward - less than thirty of which is miry by this line - and it is firm
in proportion to the distance from the lake. Two or three small, isolated rocky
ranges stand in it, but it appears otherwise to the eye, as level as a sheet of
water. To the west this desert is succeeded by broken mountain ranges, one
of which is terminated towards the south near Pilot Peak, affording the means
of reaching and passing to the succeeding plain.
The country to the south of this valley [Humboldt] consists of an alternation of
narrow mountains and valleys rapidly succeeding each other. The mountains
have a general north and south course, but not unfrequently vary many degrees
from that general direction, and, occasionally, cross chains are seen, closing the
valleys to the north and south; but large spurs more frequently extend out from
succeeding chains, and unite to form cross ranges, or overlap and obstruct the
view. They are sharp, rocky, and inaccessible in many parts, but are low and
easily passed in others. Their general elevation varies from 1 ,500 to 3,000 feet
above the valleys, and but few of them retain snow upon their highest peaks
during the summer. They are liberally supplied with springs and small streams,
but the latter seldom extend far into the plains. At the time of melting snows
they form many small ponds and lakes, but at others are absorbed by the soil
near the bases of the mountains. Grass is found in abundance upon nearly
every range, but timber is very scarce, a small scattered growth of cedars only
being seen upon a few ranges. The valleys rarely extend uninterruptedly east
and west, to a greater width than five or ten miles, but often have a large extent
north and south. They are very irregular in form, frequently extending around
the ends of mountains, or are united to succeeding valleys by level passages.
2. McLane, "Exploration and Early Mapping in Eastern Nevada," p. 3.
36
They are much less fertile than the mountains, but generally support several
varieties of artemisia, relieving them from the character of barrenness or desert.
There are, however, many barren spots in each of these valleys, and the soil
is seldom one half covered with vegetation, even for a few acres, while the
great mass of it is merely sprinkled by the sombre artemisia foliage, presenting
the aspect of a dreary waste, unrelieved by inviting shades, grassy plats, and
floral beauties, and is nowhere suitable for settlements and cultivation.3
TRAVERSE FOR A CENTRAL ROUTE TRAIL BY HOWARD R. EGAN: 1855
In 1855 Howard R. Egan, a one-time major in the Mormon Nauvoo Legion and a well-
known guide and mountaineer, traversed the central Great Basin area to find a shorter
central route between Salt Lake City and Sacramento. For some years he had been
engaged in driving stock to California from the Utah Mormon settlements in the service of
Livingston & Kinkead. Thus, he was familiar with the area and was prevailed upon by the
Mormon hierarchy to find a shorter central route connecting their widespread settlements
with the Central Valley in California. Major George Chorpenning also induced Egan to
search for a more direct trail between Utah and California for a mail route.
During 1855 Egan made two trips between Salt Lake City and Sacramento. In July he and
several men made their first crossing. Upon his return he made a wager that he could ride
to Sacramento in ten days on mule-back, and thus he and several men set out from Great
Salt Lake on September 19. Succeeding in winning the wager Egan advertised his new
trail as a crossing of a "Trackless and Desert Country" in a "Time Never Equalled Before"
by "Such a Mode of Traveling." Known for some years thereafter as Egan's Trail, the new
course crossed southwest of Deep Creek, passed through northern Snake and Spring
valleys, and crossed the Schell Creek Range at Schellbourne Pass. In his 1855 diary Egan
described the route:
Fifteen miles to Ruby Valley. Twenty miles down to valley; forty miles in same
valley, creek fifteen miles [perhaps Schell Creek] on the side of a small
mountain in a large spring. Twenty miles over mountain five or six springs
[Spring Valley]. Twelve miles to summit of little mountain; twenty-five miles to
Deep Creek.
The route varied generally "but a few miles from 40 degrees north latitude, until reaching
Hastings pass in the Humboldt mountains where it branched off in a southwesterly direction
toward Carson lake and river, and from Carson City south to Genoa," before crossing the
Sierra Nevada to Sacramento.4
The Egan route was similar to that later taken by Simpson's survey and was adopted by
Chorpenning for an overland mail route from Salt Lake City to Sacramento. The general
route would also be used by the Pony Express in 1860-61.
3. "Report of Explorations for a Route for the Pacific Railroad of the Line of the Forty-First Parallel of North
Latitude by Lieut. E.G. Beckwith, Third Artillery, 1854," pp. 61-62, in U.S. Congress, House, Reports of Explorations
and Surveys, To Ascertain the Most Practicable and Economical Route for a Railroad From the Mississippi River
to the Pacific Ocean, Made under the Direction of the Secretary of War, in 1853-54, Vol. II, H.R. Ex. Doc. 91, 33d
Cong., 3d Sess., 1855, and Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West, pp. 286-87.
4. William M. Egan, comp., Pioneering the West, 1846 to 1879: Major Howard Egan's Diary (Richmond,
Utah, Howard R. Egan Estate, 1917), pp. 195-98.
37
SURVEY FOR MILITARY WAGON ROAD ACROSS THE CENTRAL ROUTE BY JAMES
H. SIMPSON: 1859
During the summer of 1858, the U.S. Army under Albert Sidney Johnston was bivouacked
at Camp Floyd in Cedar Valley south of the Great Salt Lake and west of Utah Lake, and
turning from the business of suppressing a supposed rebellion to the tasks of peace. Thus,
Johnston ordered his chief topographical engineer, Captain James H. Simpson, to make two
reconnaissance trips, one for a wagon road that would connect Camp Floyd with the supply
depot at Fort Bridger via Timpanogos Canyon and the other to locate a new more direct
route to California with the immediate objective of locating a possible site for a fort part
way across the Great Basin. With winter approaching, Simpson turned back to Camp Floyd
after ranging as far west as the Thomas Mountains in his quest to find a new direct route
to California. During the winter of 1858-59 Simpson submitted a proposal for future
exploration across the Great Basin to Secretary of War John B. Floyd:
It is believed that a direct route from this post to Carson Valley in Utah can be
obtained which would avoid the detour by the Humboldt to the right and that by
the Las Vegas and Los Angeles route to the left and that it could be obtained
so as to make the distance to San Francisco less than 800 miles . . . 260 miles
shorter than the Humboldt River route and 390 miles shorter than the Los
Angeles route.
In addition, he proposed that another expedition be sent to open a route from Camp Floyd
to the headwaters of the Arkansas River, where it would continue via Bent's Fort to Fort
Leavenworth.5
Secretary of War Floyd approved the plan, and on May 2, 1859, Simpson led a party of
sixty-four officers and men out of Camp Floyd into the Great Basin. He had as assistants
two young officers of the Topographical Corps, Lieutenant J.L. Kirby Smith and Lieutenant
Haldeman L Putnam. Demonstrating the scientific character of the expedition, Simpson
had Henry Engelmann as geologist, meteorologist, and botanical collector; Charles S.
McCarthy, collector of specimens of natural history and taxidermist; C.C. Mills,
photographer; and H.V.A. von Beckh, artist. John Reese, "Pete," a Ute Indian, and George
Washington Bean, one of the leaders of the Mormon White Mountain Expedition of the
previous year, served as guides. The escort of twenty-two men was commanded by
Lieutenant Alexander Murray of the Tenth Infantry.6
The course of the Simpson reconnaissance, which generally followed the Egan route, led
slightly south of due west through Rush Valley to Johnston's Pass in Guyot's Range. From
there the men moved into Skull Valley and the Salt Lake Desert before passing through
Pleasant and northern Snake and Spring valleys and then across Schellboume Pass into
Steptoe Valley. Simpson then crossed Butte and Ruby valleys and Hastings Pass in the
Humboldt Mountains.
5. Report of Explorations Across the Great Basin of the Territory of Utah for a Direct Wagon-Route from
Camp Floyd to Genoa, in Carson Valley, in 1859, by Captain J.H. Simpson (Washington, Government Printing
Office, 1876), pp. 1-41. Further information on Simpson's reconnaissance may be found in the diary and notes
of William Lee, his secretary. See William Lee, "A Copy of My Notes Taken While On A Journey Across the
Plains from Washington to Genoa, Carson Valley, Utah, From April 11th May 9 (Monday) 1858 to Oct. 25th 1859,
Manuscripts Division, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
6. The Shortest Route to California Illustrated by a History of Explorations of the Great Basin of Utah with
its Topographical and Geological Character and Some Account of the Indian Tribes by Brevet Brig. -General J.H.
Simpson (Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1869), pp. 30-32.
7. Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West, p. 400.
38
In his journal Simpson wrote extensive observations on the terrain and Indians that his
party encountered in present-day western Utah and eastern Nevada. On May 7, 1859,
while at Fish Springs in the Great Salt Lake Desert, he made his first comments about the
Snake Range and Wheeler Peak, which he referred to as the "Go-shoot or Tots-arrh
Mountains" and "Union Peak," respectively:
Took up march at 6 1/4 o'clock. In 3.5 miles pass Warm Spring and a mail-
station. Soon after starting it commenced to rain, which softened the road at
the outset so much as to cause the wagons, 6 miles from Fish Springs, to stall
occasionally in a distance of one-quarter of a mile. Detained an hour on this
account. At this point the road doubles the point of the range along which we
have been traveling, and continues on the plain of the desert toward the Go-
shoot or Tots-arrh Mountains, meaning high mountain range. After making a
journey of 29.7 miles, and coming for the first time to grass, the mules
beginning to give out, we were obliged about sundown to encamp without water,
except that in our kegs. I however found water 2.5 miles ahead, to which we
will move to-morrow. The journey to-day has been a hard one, on account of
the sandy and, in some places, boggy character of the soil. The country
passed over is as desert a region as I ever beheld, scarcely a spear of grass
visible, and in some areas not even the characteristics of an arid soil,
greasewood, or sage. In some places the ground is perfectly bare of
everything, and is as smooth and polished as a varnished floor. The first grass
we have met with is that in which we are encamped.
The Go-shoot or Tots-arrh Mountains have been nearly all day long directly
ahead of us, and appear very high. The peaks are covered with snow, and
some 70 miles quartering to the left from our camp may be seen a towering
one, which I call Union Peak, on account of its presenting itself in a doubled
and connected form. The geological character of the range is sedimentary,
intermingled with quartz-rock.
While still in the Great Salt Lake Desert on May 8 Simpson observed that the mountains,
"among them the Granite and Go-shoot Mountains, hemming us in at distant points, made
up an agreeable landscape." He also described his first encounter with Indians on the
reconnaissance:
Just before dinner a Parvan (Ute) Indian (Black Hawk) came into camp. This
is the first Indian we have seen on our route. His squaw is a Go-shoot woman,
and he lives among that people. Gave him his dinner and some tobacco. Had
a sketch of him taken. He wears his hair tied up at the temples and behind;
carries a buckskin pouch and powder-horn; a bow and quiver swung on his right
side; wears a pink checked American shirt, buckskin leggins and moccasins, and
a blanket around his loins; an old black silk handkerchief is tied about his neck.
He has one huge iron spur on his right heel, and rides a sorrel pony. His
height is 5 feet 7 1/2 inches; has a stout square frame; age, probably, 35;
carries a rifle. His bow is 3 feet long, and is made of sheep's horn; arrow, 25
inches long, feathered, and barbed with iron. His countenance is ordinarily
sardonic, but lights up in conversation, and shows as much intelligence as
Indians do ordinarily.
The following day Simpson had more contact with Indians as his journal entry for May 9
indicates. While at his camp at Sulphur Spring he described their lifeways at considerable
length:
39
We have to-day seen a number of Go-shoot Indians. They are most wretched-
looking creatures, certain the most wretched I have ever seen, and I have seen
great numbers in various portions our country. Both men and women wear a
cape made of strips of rabbit-skins, twisted and dried, and then tied together
with strings, and drawn around the neck by a cord. This cape extends to just
below the hip, and is but a scant protection to the body. They seldom wear
leggins or moccasins, and the women appear not to be conscious of any
impropriety in exposing their persons down to the waist. Children at the breast
are perfectly naked, and this at a time when overcoats were required by us.
The men wear their hair cut square in front, just above the eyes, and it is
allowed to extend in streamers at the temples. The women let their hair grow
at random. They live on rats, lizards, snakes, insects, grass-seed, and roots,
and their largest game is the rabbit, it being seldom that they kill an antelope.
I learn from Mr. Faust, the mail-agent at this point, that there are only about
200 Go-shoots all told of every age. They use, generally, the bow and arrow,
there being only one gun to about 25 men. He represents them as of a
thievish disposition, the mail company having lost by them about 12 head of
cattle and as many mules. They steal them for food.
Just at sunset I walked out with Mr. Faust to see some of these Go-shoots at
home. We found, about 1.5 miles from camp, one of their habitations, which
consisted only of some cedar branches disposed around in the periphery of a
circle, about 10 feet in diameter, and in such a manner as to break off, to the
height of about 4 feet, wind from the prevailing direction. In this inclosure were
a number of men, women, and children. Rabbit-skins were the clothing
generally, the poor infant at the breast having nothing on it. In the center was
a camp-kettle suspended to a three-legged crotch or tripod. In it they were
boiling the meat we had given them. An old woman superintended the cooking,
and at the same time was engaged in dressing an antelope-skin. When the
soup was done, the fingers of each of the inmates were stuck into the only
dish, and sucked. While this was going on, an Indian came in from his day's
hunt. His largest game was the rat, of which he had a number stuck around
under the string of his waist. These were soon put by the old woman on the
fire, and the hair scorched; this done, she rubbed off the crisped hair with a
pine-knot, and then, thrusting her finger into the paunch of the animal, pulled
out the entrails. From these, pressing out the offal, she threw the animal,
entrails and all, into the pot.
The rats are caught by a dead-fall made of a heavy stone, and supported by
a kind of figure 4, made as it ordinarily is for a trap, except that, instead of a
piece of wood, a string is used, tied, and provided with a short button, which
being brought around the upright, is delicately held in position by a spear of
dried grass or delicate piece of wood, which, pressing against the button, rests
at the other end against the ground or stone. Traps like these are placed over
the holes of the rats, and they, coming in contact with the long or lower piece
of the figure 4, bring the stone upon them. They are also speared in their
holes by a stick turned up slightly at the end and pointed, and with another, of
a spade-form at the end, the earth is dug away until the animal is reached and
possessed.
The Go-shoots, as well as the Diggers, constantly carry about with them these
instruments of death, which, with the bow and arrow and net, constitute their
chief means for the capture of game. Hanging on the brush about their "kant,"
as they call their habitations, I noticed one of these nets. It was well made, of
40
excellent twine fabricated of a species of flax which grows in certain localities
in this region, is 3 feet wide, and of a very considerable length. With this kind
of net they catch the rabbit. A fence or barrier, made of the wild sage-bush
plucked up by the roots, or cedar branches, is laid across the paths of the
rabbits, and on this fence the net is hung vertically, and in its meshes the rabbit
is caught.
The fear of capture causes these people to live generally some distance from
the water, which they bring to their "kant" in a sort of jug made of willow tightly
platted together and smeared with fir-gum. They also make their bowls and
seed and root baskets in the same way - a species of manufacture quite
common among all the Indian tribes, and which, in 1849, I saw in the greatest
perfection among the Navajos and Pueblo Indians of New Mexico.
I noticed a species of the food they eat, and which is made from seeds and
roots which they get in the bottoms. I tasted it, but it looking precisely like a
cake of cattle-ordure, and having anything but an agreeable taste, I soon
disgorged it.
On May 10 the Simpson party crossed into present-day Nevada, entering Pleasant Valley
in which the men camped. Here he wrote:
The mountains are covered with cedars, and also contain pine and fir large
enough for building purposes, and stone. Below the spring there is a very
limited amount of cultivable land, which might be irrigated. This is the first
cultivable land we have seen since we left Camp Floyd. The universal scene
has been an arid, light argillo-arenaceous soil in the valleys, and the artemisia
more or less everywhere.
The formation of the Tots-arrh range, in which Pleasant Valley lies, is made up
of slaty and calcarous rocks, mostly highly altered, and on the south side of the
valley are seen granite rocks and quartzite. On the west side, near our present
camp . . . impure limestones and sandstones abound, pointing to the
Carboniferous formation. The soil of the valleys correspond.
In this country, where grass is scattered as it is in the case of the bunch-grass,
or scarce, it is necessary, in order to keep up the condition of the animals, to
herd them. For this purpose we have four herders, three of whom are
Mexicans and one an American. One of these drives the herd during the day,
the others sleeping in the wagons, and at night the last mentioned take care of
them. We have, therefore, brought with us only a few lariats for the horses,
which, however, are seldom used except as guys to our wagons along side-
hills, and to close up the gaps between the wagons when corralled for stock-
catching in the morning. At Camp Floyd and other places in Utah, there are
a number of Mexicans who prove valuable as herders. Besides being capital
for looking up stray animals, they are generally expert in throwing the lasso.
On May 1 1 , while camping in Antelope Valley, Simpson described the terrain of Antelope
and Spring valleys and Indian inhabitants as well as further sightings of Union Peak during
the day's journey from Pleasant Valley. He observed:
Just after leaving camp we have a fine distant view of the mountains hemming
in the Antelope Valley at the west and north. After getting across the valley you
can see to the east of south, glittering with snow, the high peak of the Go-
shoot, or Tots-arrh range, some 60 miles off. This valley runs north and south,
41
is flatly and smoothly concave, and about 12 miles wide; is bounded on the
east by the Tots-arrh or Go-shoot range; on the west by the Un-go-we-ah, or
Pine Timber range, which are next to the Tots-arrh in height; at the north
distantly it appears to be hemmed in by mountains, and at the south is
uninterrupted in view. Altitude above the sea, 5,690 feet. The soil is a sandy
gravel on the benches, in the bottom argillaceous and covered with short sage.
In the vicinity where we cross it there are no indications of water or grass, but
some 50 miles to the south of us, to the north of our return-route, there is water
and an abundance of grass. After crossing Antelope Valley, you ascend a
rather low range of mountains, composed of slaty, stratified rocks, by a tolerable
grade, and get into a shallow valley, called Shell Valley on account of its being
covered with shale. Crossing this you descend over a formation of dioritic
rocks, in 2 miles, by a good grade, into Spring Valley, where there is an
extensive bottom of alkaline grass and of spring water, and where we encamp
early in the afternoon.
This is a narrow valley, running north and south, and lies between the Un-go-
we-ah range on the west and a low minor range on the east. It is called Spring
Valley, from the number of springs which make a chain of small shallow lakes
or ponds in the direction of its length. The grass in it is abundant, but coarse
and alkaline. Better grass can be found in the ravines and on the bench on
the west side of the valley. The alkaline nature of the soil makes it unfit for
cultivation. The formation of the valley, which is a highly metamorphosed
character, is composed, probably, of semi-fused stratified rocks.
Found some Root-Diggers here, one a very old woman, bent over with
infirmities, very short in stature, and the most lean, wretched-looking object it
has ever been my lot to see. Had her likeness taken.
These Indians appear worse in condition than the meanest of the animal
creation. Their garment is only a rabbit-skin cape, like those already described,
and the children go naked. It is refreshing, however, in all their degradation,
to see the mother studiously careful of her little one, by causing it to nestle
under her rabbit-skin mantle.
At first they were afraid to come near us, but bread having been given to the
old woman, by signs and words she made the others in the distance understand
that they had nothing to fear, and prompted them to accompany her to camp
to get something to eat. Notwithstanding the old woman looked as if she was
famished, it was very touching to see her deal out her bread, first to the little
child at her side, and then, only after the others had come up and got their
share, to take the small balance for herself. At camp, the feast we gave them
made them fairly laugh for joy.
Near our camp I visited one of their dens or wick-e-ups. Like that already
described, it was an inclosure, 3 feet high, of cedar-brush. The offal around,
and in a few feet of it, was so offensive as to cause my stomach to retch, and
cause a hasty retreat. Mr. Bean told me the truth when he spoke of the
immense piles of faeces voided by these Indians, about their habitations, caused
doubtless by the vegetable, innutritious character of the food.
I noticed the women carrying on their backs monstrous willow baskets filled with
a sort of carrot root, which they dig in the marsh, and the cacti, both of which
they use for food. The stature of these Indians, both male and female, is under
size. After dark a number came in; but it is a rule with us not to permit them
42
to remain all night in camp, and they were told that though they could not
remain with us, they could come in the morning. Their joyous conversation
shows that they believe they have got among good friends.
On May 12 the Simpson party crossed Spring Valley on the way to Steptoe Valley. He
found Spring Valley to be "cold" on "account of its altitude." On the way he encountered
what the Mormons call mountain mahogany in the pass. This tree (the
Cercocarpus ledifolius) grows generally at the summit of the passes. It is
somewhat scrubby in appearance, ramifying in several branches from the
ground, and in form resembles the apple-tree. Its greatest height is about 20
feet, and the aggregate breadth of its branches 20 feet. Its wood is very hard,
and is used for cogs, journals, gudgeons, &c.8
From Hastings Pass in the Humboldt Mountains Simpson turned southwest to blaze his new
trail to California. This led across a number of mountain ranges, valleys, and creeks, which
he named for himself, friends, and superiors, including the Cooper Mountains, Cooper Pass,
Reese Valley, Simpson Park, and Engelmann Creek. At the north end of the Black
Mountains the expedition struck Carson Lake and turned south to Walker's River, then north
again, where it crossed the Carson River before reaching Carson City and Genoa. Leaving
his command at the latter settlement, Simpson took a stage over the Sierras via Dagget's
Trail to Placerville. After visiting Sacramento and San Francisco, Simpson rejoined his
men, and on June 24, 1859, the party began its return march to Camp Floyd. On its
return, the survey party swung southward of the outgoing trail, passing through Steptoe
Valley near present-day Ely and crossing the Schell Creek Range into Spring Valley before
moving over the Snake Range via Sacramento Pass into Snake Valley. From there the
men crossed the Guyot Range through Oak Pass and then returned to Camp Floyd.9
Simpson's journal entries for July 19-21, during which the party was in the vicinity of the
Snake Range, provide interesting glimpses of the terrain. The entry for July 19, written at
his camp in Antelope Valley, stated in part:
As you descend Little's Canon to Antelope Valley the Go-shoot, or Tots-arrh,
range looms up toweringly in front of you, the most conspicuous portion being
Union Peak. Antelope Valley, in which we are encamped, exhibits a much
better soil in this portion of it than where we crossed it on our outward route.
To the north, commencing about three-quarters of a mile from our camp, a
bottom of good grass (a great deal of it red-top), 2 or 3 miles wide, extends
for a distance of 8 or 10 miles northwardly, and probably further, and
intermingled with it are extensive groves of tall cedars, which thus far on our
routes, existing, as these groves do, in the bottom of the valley, is quite an
anomaly. Birds frequent these groves, and make the air resonant with their
music. The scenery, too, is quite pretty. This valley is 5,633 feet above the
sea, and therefore 513 feet lower than Steptoe Valley where we last crossed
it. It is not, however, so well watered as the latter, neither is the grass so
luxuriant. There are, however, some fine cold springs which we will pass
tomorrow, about 2 miles up Turnley's Canon, and 8 miles to the northeast of
this camp, which might be useful were a fort established in this valley.
8. Report of Explorations Across the Great Basin . . . in 1859 . . . by Simpson, pp. 51-57.
9. Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West, pp. 402-03.
43
On July 20 Simpson apparently camped at what is now known as Layton Springs in Spring
Valley. Here he made observations on the Snake Range, Strawberry Canyon which he
termed Red Canon, and Union Peak. It is significant to note that he was the first to write
of the presence of snow on the peak during the summer. He stated:
Course east of north, 5.8 miles up Antelope Valley to mouth of canon, which
I call after Capt. P.T. Turnley, assistant quartermaster at Camp Floyd, and
which leads us to the pass over the Go-shoot or Tots-arrh range. Our road
turns up this canon southeastwardly, and 2.2 miles from mouth we find some
fine copious cold springs, which I call also after Captain Turnley. Grass and
wood-fuel found in vicinity. Persons traveling our route will find a road to the
north of ours, and more direct from near the mouth of Little's Canon to the
mouth of Tumley's Canon 1.8 miles by a remarkably easy grade, the canon
being amply wide, we reach summit of pass of the Go-shoot or Tots-arrh range
(7,060 feet above the sea), whence we had toward the east a fine view of some
distant mountains, Union Peak of the Tots-arrh range to the east of the summit
towering far above every other height, and showing a great deal of snow and
apparently depending icicles in its recesses. Indeed, I think this peak the
highest we have seen on either of our routes. Descending from pass on east
side, by a canon of very easy inclination, in 7.2 miles reach a fine spring of
flowing water, where we encamp. This canon I call Red Canon, on account of
its red-colored rocks. The spring is called by the Indians Un-go-pah, or Red
Spring. Plenty of grass exists near and in vicinity, and I notice also some
springs to the south side of us, in the canon, about 2 miles off. Union Peak,
which lies some 10 or 15 miles to the west of south of us, the Indians call Too-
bur-rit; but I cannot learn its meaning. The mountain range is covered with
cedar, pinon, and fir. Road to-day very good. ... An elk was seen for the
first time yesterday in Stevenson's Canon, and one to-day in Red Canon; also,
a mountain sheep for the first time.
The Tots-arrh range, on west side, is composed of altered limestone and
quartzite. The limestone forms the mountains on both sides of summit of pass.
On east side, along the road, was noticed a great deal of calcareous
conglomerate; also, quartzite and impure limestones.
At his encampment at Un-go-pah or Red Springs in what is now known as Strawberry
Canyon, Simpson described the area in his journal on July 21 . Among other things, he
commented on his observations of Snake Valley which he named Crosman Valley:
Continue to descend Red Canon to valley on east side of Tots-arrh range,
which valley I call after Deputy Quartermaster-General George H. Crosman,
stationed at headquarters Department of Utah. The road we are following, and
have been since we left Steptoe Valley, is the Mormon road. . . . The
indications are that some fifty wagons have been over it. The tracks of the
cattle are still visible, and the dung yet remains on the road. About 3 miles
from camp we leave the road, to cut off a bend of it. About 2.5 miles farther
cross a dry branch just below its sink. Cottonwood at crossing. Five and a half
miles farther brings us to a rush spring of tolerable water, which, by excavation,
could be made to serve a pretty large command. There is a great deal of grass
about it, and in the vicinity. Three and a half miles farther we join and follow
again the Mormon road. Half a mile farther we come to creek, 3 feet wide, 1
deep, which comes from the south, and sinks a quarter of a mile below camp.
In places it is lined with rushes and willows. On this creek, which I call also
after Colonel Crosman, we encamp at half past 12, amid abundance of grass.
This valley, which, like nearly all the others, lies north and south, is 12 to 15
44
miles wide, and is partially closed at either end by high mountains, some 25 or
30 miles off. Its elevation above the sea is 4,920 feet. It has a great deal of
grass in it, in localities, and is at these places supplied with springs, which are
either copious or can be made sufficiently so. Small greasewood the
characteristic. Road to-day generally very good, sometimes cutting up from
alkali. Soil generally gravelly. Journey, 14.8 miles.
Simpson continued to describe the area of Snake Valley on his way to the House Range.
In his journal on July 22, while camped at Crosman Creek, he observed:
Moved at 5, and continue on Mormon road. Course, northwardly in valley for
10.2 miles, when we come to a number of small springs, which I call after Lieut.
Peter W.L Plympton, Seventh Infantry. These springs at present do not afford
a great deal of water, for the reason of their being no proper excavations, but
a great sufficiency could be easily obtained in this way. The soldier who last
joined us at Un-go-pah Springs was directed by the guide to conduct us to a
spring 12 miles distant from our last camp, but as these are only 10 miles
distant, and the soldier has not been to the place, we continued on in the hope
of seeing the springs referred to within about a couple of miles and camping at
it. It proved, however, that at this distance there were no springs, so that I was
lured on in the hope of finding them a little farther on. At 13, 14, and 15 miles
from camp we saw none, and then, according to the notes of the guide, which
he had shown me, feeling confident that they were beyond, in striking distance,
I continued on till, at quarter to 5 o'clock, we had traveled 30.1 miles, when we
were obliged to encamp near some puddles of water, which had been made by
the rain, just before we reached the spot. The misfortune is, too, that there is
no grass in the vicinity, but the barley we purchased at Placerville now comes
into requisition, and we shall thus be enabled to get through the night.
After reaching, as above stated, Plympton's Springs, our route lay eastwardly
6.7 miles to foot of pass, across a low, thirsty mountain-ridge, which I call Perry
Range; thence 3.1 miles by a good grade, up a broad canon to summit, the
rocks on the left side being buttress or bluff-like; and thence, by gentle descent
10.1 miles to camp. The ridge we have passed over is composed of highly
altered silico-calcareous rocks, and is almost entirely bare of trees. From the
summit of the pass, 5,657 feet above the sea, could be seen, some 25 or 30
miles off, on east side of range of mountains, quite remarkable on account of
its well-defined stratification and the resemblance of portions of its outline to
domes, minarets, houses, and other structures. On this account I call it the
House range. Between it and the ridge forming our point of view is a very
extensive valley, very generally white with alkaline efflorescence, and I have
therefore called it White Valley. It is some 25 miles wide, and partially closed
north and south by low ranges, about 15 miles off. Soil, areno-argillaceous.
Small greasewood the characteristic.10
Simpson's explorations of the Great Basin in 1859 were his last before the Civil War.
Based on his observations Simpson recommended the use of his more northerly outgoing
route for a military wagon road because it provided better water and forage for livestock.
This route was similar to that explored by Egan in 1855.
Simpson prepared two reports, but these were not published until after the war. These
documents were The Shortest Route to California Illustrated by a History of Explorations
10. Report of Explorations Across the Great Basin . . . in 1859 . . . by Simpson, pp. 120-23.
45
of the Great Basin of Utah (1869) and Report of Explorations Across the Great Basin of
the Territory of Utah for a Direct Wagon-Route from Camp Floyd to Genoa, in Carson
Valley, in 1859 (1876). The latter contained a geological report by Engelmann, a
paleontological study by F.B. Meek, a list of birds by a Professor Baird, a chapter on
ichthyology by Theodore Gill, and a botanical resume by George Englemann.11
In The Shortest Route to California, published in 1876, Simpson described the results of
his 1859 expedition. Using the third person, he noted:
The result of the expedition was the opening of two new, practicable wagon
routes across the Great Basin; the shorter of which lessened the distance
between Great Salt Lake City and San Francisco a trifle over two hundred
miles; and the other about one hundred and eighty miles. Immediately the first-
mentioned became the postal route; the "Pony Express" commenced its trips
over it, and emigrants to California have used it ever since. Also by the
recommendations of Captain Simpson, and the efforts of Colonel Bee, the then
President of the Overland Telegraph Company, which at that date had extended
its wires only from San Francisco a distance of two hundred and fifty miles to
Genoa, Congress was induced to pass the bill incorporating the Overland
Telegraph Company and authorizing it to construct a telegraph across the
continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It was the fortunate circumstance of
Captain Simpson finding so feasible a telegraph route and reporting it to Colonel
Bee, that induced the latter to go on to Washington from California and press
the matter of the Overland Telegraph through Congress to a successful result.12
While his reports were not published until after the Civil War, the 1859 expedition of
Simpson was a capstone to his brilliant career as an Army explorer. During the previous
decade he had marched over more of the western country than any of the other U.S.
Army topographers. Conservative in his judgments and scrupulous in his road-building
duties, he countered the popular enthusiasm for headlong progress in opening
transportation arteries. In his final report in 1876 he pronounced the southwestern Great
Basin an "unmitigated desert," and yet "notwithstanding all this, annually you will see bills
brought forward in Congress in which the land along the route figures as a very important
element in the ways and means to construct the [rail] road." He remained a wagon-road
man, however, and believed that the government should first build local roads and postal
routes, then populate the country and develop its resources before attempting to construct
a transcontinental railroad. In practical terms he had done his part to bring this about as
the Pony Express, Overland Stage, and transcontinental telegraph would use routes he had
tracked across the Great Basin. His final report included a thorough survey of the botany,
zoology, and meteorology of the central region of the Great Basin, thus contributing to the
scientific knowledge of a largely unknown area.13
In his devotion to the increase of knowledge, for both practical and theoretical purposes,
Simpson proved both to be a rugged explorer and a man given to metaphysical
contemplation. Halfway up the western slope of Cho-kup's Pass in central Utah, he once
paused to reflect:
11. U.S. Army, Report Upon United States Geographical Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian, Vol.
I, Geographical Report, Part III, pp. 611-13.
12. Shortest Route to California . . . by Simpson, p. 33. Simpson summarized the chief characteristics in
pages 35-55 of this report. A copy of this information may be seen in Appendix D.
13. Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West, pp. 403-04, and Report of Explorations Across the
Great Basin . . . in 1859 . . . by Simpson, pp. 236, 262-65.
46
From this peak had a most magnificent view of the mountains in every quarter
of the horizon - the Humboldt range, to the east of north, showing its white
snowy summits far above the intervening ones. These distant views have, at
least on my mind, a decidedly moral and religious effect; and I cannot but
believe that they are not less productive of emotions of value in this respect
than they are of use in accustoming the mind to large conceptions, and thus
giving it power and capacity. The mysterious property of nature to develop the
whole man, including the mind, soul, and body, is a subject which I think has
not received the attention from philosophers which its importance demands; and
though Professor Arnold Guyot, of Princeton, has written a most capital work on
the theme, "Earth and Man," yet a great deal remains to be done to bring the
matter to the profit of the world at large, which, it seems to me, a wise and
beneficent Creator has ordained should be gathered from the contemplation and
proper use of his works.
But then the question arises, Do we rise from the contemplation of nature to
nature's God, and therefore to a realization of the amplitude and reach to which
our minds are capable, by our own unaided spirit; or is it by the superinduced
Spirit of the Almighty Himself, which we have received, it may be, on account
of his only Son? But these speculations may be considered as foreign to the
necessary rigor of an official report; and I, therefore, will indulge in them no
further than to say that, according to my notions, the latter I believe to be the
true theory.14
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION LINES ACROSS THE CENTRAL ROUTE:
1859-1869
During the years 1859-61 various transportation and communication lines were commenced
along the general central route across the Great Basin through northern Snake and Spring
valleys well north of present-day Great Basin National Park. These enterprises generally
followed the paths blazed by Egan and Simpson in 1855 and 1859, respectively.
Overland mail, stage, and telegraph service was inaugurated along the central or Simpson-
Egan route during 1859-61. In September 1859 the Overland Mail Stage, operated by Major
George Chorpenning, moved its lines to this route from its previous more northerly course.
From April 3, 1860, to October 27, 1861, the Pony Express operated between St. Joseph,
Missouri, and Sacramento, California, crossing northern Snake and Spring valleys and
continuing on to Schellboume in the northern Schell Creek Range and Cherry Creek in the
Egan Range. The transcontinental telegraph was completed in September 1861 along the
central route, permitting the first telegraph message to be transmitted from San Francisco
to Washington, D.C., on October 24, 1861, and forcing the Pony Express to terminate its
services as an unprofitable enterprise. In July 1861 the Southern Daily Overland Mail,
which had been established through northern Texas to California in 1859, was transferred
to the Simpson-Egan route because of anticipated disturbances along the southern route
as a result of the Civil War. By 1865 a single Overland Mail and Stage Company had
consolidated mail, freight, and passenger service between Salt Lake City and California with
14. Report of Explorations Across the Great Basin . . . in 1859 . . . by Simpson, p. 69.
47
some 36 stations, 60 wagons, 190 horses, and 22 drivers operating between Austin,
Nevada, and Salt Lake City.15
The central or Egan-Simpson route through the Great Basin was described by various
travelers in written accounts. While they generally depicted the route as a jolting ride
through a dry, desolate wasteland, they also commented on the beauty of the numerous
mountain ranges that punctuated the barren plains and the clear, pure atmosphere of the
region. One such account was written by Samuel Bowles, editor of a Springfield
Massachusetts newspaper, who took the Overland Mail stage from Salt Lake City to
California in the mid-1 860s. In his description of the Great Basin between Salt Lake City
and Virginia City, Nevada, he noted:
We are nearly out of the Sage Brush! Nearly into a "white country," where the
grass grows green, and water runs, and trees mount skyward and spread sweet
shade. Like some of the dry, barren plains that lead up to the Rocky Mountains
on the east, the six hundred miles we have come over from Salt Lake to this
point, pass through a region whose uses are unimaginable, unless to hold the
rest of the globe together, or to teach patience to travelers, or to keep close-
locked in its mountain ranges those rich mineral treasures that the world did not
need or was not ready for until now. The Basin of the Great Salt Lake ... is
but a south-eastern and most fertile corner of an immensely large intra-
mountain basin, that has no water outlet to the ocean, that absorbs all the
water developed within its limits, and cries, oh how hungrily for more, whose
chief natural vegetable product is Sage Brush, and which holds within its bounds
the great, if not the sole, silver mines of the nation.
Bowles went on to comment that through
this wide stretch of treeless mountain and plain, at its center, - fifty to one
hundred miles below the old and more fortunately watered emigrant route along
the valley of the Humboldt, - on a nearly straight line west, we have made the
most rapid stage ride yet achieved on the great overland line, and the equal
perhaps of any ever made of like distance on the Continent.
The stage ride across the Great Basin, according to Bowles, was an event to be long
remembered. He commented:
But our fast ride by the Overland Mail stages from Salt Lake will always be a
chief feature in the history and memory of our grand journey across the
Continent. The stations of the company are ten to fifteen miles apart; at every
station fresh horses, ready harnessed, took the places of the old, with a delay
of from two to four minutes only; every fifty miles a new driver took his place
on the box; wherever meals were to be eaten, they were ready to serve on
arrival; and so, with horses ever fresh and fat, and gamey, - horses that would
shine in Central Park and Fifth Avenue equipages, - with drivers, gentlemanly,
intelligent and better dressed than their passengers, and a division
superintendent, who had planned the ride and came along to see it executed,
for each two hundred miles, - we were whirled over the rough mountains and
through the dry and dusty plains of this uninhabited and uninhabitable region,
rarely passing a house except the stage stations, never seeing wild bird or
beast, for there were none to see, as rapidly and as regularly as we could have
15. Myron Angel, e<±, History of Nevada With Illustrations and Biographical Sketches of its Prominent Men
and Pioneers (Oakland, California, Thompson & West, 1881), [Reprint ed., New York, Arno Press, 1973], pp. 104-
06.
48
been over macadamized roads amid a complete civilization. The speed rarely
fell below eight miles an hour, and often ran up to twelve. But so wisely was
all arranged, and so well executed, that not an animal suffered, to horses and
men the ride seemed to be the work of every day, as indeed it was in
everything but our higher rate of speed.
But the passengers are content that it should be a single experience for them;
they are glad to have had it, but will spare their friends a repetition, - at
present. The alkali dust, dry with a season's sun, fine with the grinding of a
season's stages and freight trains, was thick and constant and penetrating
beyond experience and comparison. It filled the air, - it was the air; it covered
our bodies, - it penetrated them; it soared to Almighty attributes, and became
omnipresent, and finding its way into bags and trunks, begrimed all our clean
clothes and reduced everything and everybody to a common plane of dirt, with
a soda, soapy flavor to all.
Then the jolts of the rocks and the "chuck holes" of the road, to which the
drivers in their rapid progress could give no heed, kept us in a somewhat
perpetual and not altogether graceful motion. There was certainly small sleep
to be enjoyed during this memorable ride of three days and nights; and though
we made the best of it with joke and felicitation at each other's discomfort, there
was none not glad when it was over.
Despite the dry, barren stretches of the Great Basin, Bowles warned his readers not to
think that "such a country" was "altogether without beauty or interest for a traveler." He
elaborated:
Mountains are always beautiful; and here they are ever in sight, wearing every
variety of shape, and even in their hard and bare surfaces presenting many a
fascination of form, - running up into sharp peaks; rising up and rounding out
into innumerable fat mammillas, exquisitely shapen, and inviting possibly to
auriferous feasts; sloping down into faint foothills, and mingling with the plain
to which they are all destined; and now and then offering the silvery streak of
snow, that is the sign of water for man and the promise of grass for ox. Add
to the mountains the clear, pure, rare atmosphere, bringing remote objects
close, giving new size and distinctness to moon and stars, offering sunsets and
sunrises of indescribable richness and reach of color, and accompanied with
cloudless skies and a south wind, refreshing at all times, and cool and
exhilarating ever in the afternoon and evening; and you have large
compensations even for the lack of vegetation and color in the landscape.
There is a rich exhilaration, especially, in the fresh evening air, dry, clear and
strengthening, that no eastern mountain or ocean breeze can rival. In looking
out through it at sunset on the starry heavens, and in taking in its subtle
inspiration, one almost forgets alkali, and for the nonce does not remember
flowers and grass and trees.16
With the completion of the transcontinental railroad on May 10, 1869, the United States was
joined by rail for the first time. As a result the bulk of trans-Great Basin travel shifted to
16. Samuel Bowles, Across the Continent: A Summer's Journey to the Rocky Mountains, The Mormons, and
the Pacific States, With Speaker Colfax (Springfield, Massachusetts, Samuel Bowles & Company, 1866), pp. 131-
40. In 1860 Richard F. Burton, a well-traveled Englishman, went by stage from Salt Lake City to California. His
account of the trip from Salt Lake City to Ruby Valley may be found in Fawn M. Brodie, ed., The City of the Saints
and Across the Rocky Mountains to California by Richard F. Burton (New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1 963), pp. 497-
530.
49
the northern or Humboldt River route. Hence the central route fell into a state of relative
disuse.17
17. Angel, History of Nevada, pp. 102-07.
50
CHAPTER FIVE
SCIENTIFIC AND GOVERNMENT SURVEYS
OF THE GREAT BASIN: 1860s - 1890s
INTRODUCTION
By the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 much of the Great Basin had been explored and
its principal topographic features named and mapped. Many parts of the region, however,
remained relatively unknown, and detailed scientific data on the area was lacking. After the
conclusion of the war in 1865 the United States undertook the task of obtaining information
on this vast expanse. From the late 1860s to the mid 1890s various scientific and
government surveys were conducted in the Great Basin to acquire this data. Three of
these surveys are significant to this study because of their relationship to the area in which
present-day Great Basin National Park is located. These surveys include those conducted
by George M. Wheeler, John Muir, and the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
GEORGE M. WHEELER SURVEYS
Beginning in 1869 the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers commenced extensive scientific
exploration and military reconnaissance of the eastern Nevada and western Utah area
under the immediate charge of First Lieutenant George M. Wheeler. After graduation from
West Point in 1866 Wheeler had assumed official duties as assistant engineer on the
survey of Point Lobos and vicinity in the San Francisco Bay area. On March 7, 1867, he
was promoted to first lieutenant, and in the fall of 1868 he was appointed engineer on the
staff of the Commanding General of the Department of California, in which capacity he
soon was engaged in surveying and exploring in the Colorado Plateau region.1
In June 1869 Wheeler received orders from Assistant Adjutant General John P. Sherburne
to undertake a reconnaissance of southern and southeastern Nevada that would include the
area of present-day Great Basin National Park. The orders, dated June 7, 1869, read in
part:
By authority from headquarters Military Division of the Pacific, Lieut. George M.
Wheeler, United States Engineers, will proceed with his civil assistants and three
enlisted men to either Camps Halleck or Ruby, Nevada, and having been joined
by Lieut. D.W. Lockwood, United States Engineers, now en route via Fort
Churchill, will there organize a party to consist of two non-commissioned officers
and twenty-three enlisted men, (cavalry, or infantry mounted,) such drivers,
packers, and guides as may be required; equip them with the necessary, full,
and complete outfit, as far as the resources of the posts will enable him so to
do; after which he will proceed, via the White Pine district, to make a thorough
and careful reconnaissance of the district of country to the south and east of
White Pine, extending his reconnaissance, if practicable, as far as the head of
navigation on the Colorado River, with a view of opening a road thereto from
the White Pine or Grant district, of obtaining correct data for a military map of
the country, and for the selection of the site or sites for such military post or
posts to cover the mining country south and east of White Pine from hostile
Indians, as may be required. Such explorations and examinations as may will
1. Richard A. Bartlett, Great Surveys of the American West (Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1962),
pp. 334-36. Pages 333-72 of this book provide an in-depth historical perspective on the Wheeler surveys.
51
be made in reference to the physical geography of the country, its resources in
wood, water, agricultural or mineral productions.
The character, habits, and numbers of Indian tribes, and their disposition toward
settlers and miners, will be subjects for investigations.2
The Wheeler expedition in 1869 traversed an area of approximately 24,428 square miles,
including 24,028 square miles in eastern and southeastern Nevada and 400 square miles
in western Utah Territory. The general route followed by Wheeler during the six-month
period from June to November was:
San Francisco, Cal., to Halleck Station, Nev., on the Central Pacific Railroad;
thence to Camp Halleck, Nev.; thence to Elko, Nev.; thence to Old Fort Ruby,
via Huntington Valley; thence to Hamilton, White Pine District; via Long Valley;
thence to Cave Valley via Steptoe Valley; thence to Preuss Lake, (so called),
Utah, and return; thence to Panacea and Pioche via Cedar, Eagle, and Rose
Valleys; thence to West Point via Grape Vine Canon and Meadow Valley Wash;
thence to Las Vegas via mouth of Virgin River, and northern bank of Colorado
River to El Dorado Canon; thence to Indian Spring via Spring Mountain Range;
thence to Pahranagat District via Quartz and Summit Springs; thence to Monte
Cristo Mill, White Pine District, via Quinn Canon and Railroad Valley; thence to
Camp Halleck via White Pine and Huntington Valleys; thence via Halleck Station
to San Francisco.
In some cases he deviated from this route to ascend prominent mountain peaks, traverse
adjacent mountain ranges, and visit important mining camps.3
Of significance for this study was a side trip taken by a small party of Wheeler's men from
Cave Valley to Snake and Spring valleys, Jeff Davis or Union Peak, which the men named
for Wheeler, Sacramento Pass which he referred to as Red Canon Pass, and the Shoshone
and Sacramento mining districts. His report on the findings and experiences of this party
reads:
Upon the latest published map of Nevada consulted ... a lake of considerable
size, called Preuss Lake, is put down as cut by the eastern boundary of the
State. It was determined to send a small party to find out this locality and
return to the camp at the cave. . . . The next day a low divide is crossed into
Spring Valley, which, like its mate, (Steptoe Valley,) continues, it is said, to the
railroad direct, with only low divides between almost continuous depressions.
A march of over twenty miles led to a camp opposite Jeff Davis Peak, near the
Shoshone Mining District. Camp is made at a small creek with pure and clear
water, near ranches that have sprung up in conjunction with the mining camp.
Bunch-grass abounds; hay is plenty in the immediate neighborhood, and three
or four thousand acres of cultivatable land await the settler.
A few hours are taken for a hasty glance at these mines while the party is
moving on. This is done in company with Mr. A.F. White, acting State Geologist
2. U.S. Army, Engineer Department, Preliminary Report Upon A Reconnaissance Through Southern and
Southeastern Nevada, Made in 1869, By First Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, Assisted
by First Lieut. D.W. Lockwood, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1875),
p. 7.
3. Report Upon United States Geographical Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian, Vol. I -
Geographical Report, p. 22.
52
of Nevada, who met us in this vicinity, having been our companion at the Cave
for a few days.
The mines are on the western slope of the Snake range, and exposed in a
rough break in the side of the mountains, down which a large wash of sand has
accumulated, making a ramp to bring one up nearer to the level of the mines.
The leads seem wide and well defined, free, also, in a great measure, from the
base metals, and ought to work well by the ordinary wet process. There is
certainly a good showing for the extraction of a large amount of ore, most of
which is likely to be of low grade. But few miners were at work at the time of
our visit. Water in the near vicinity of the mines is scarce; being enough for
the necessities of the camp. The creek, near which the camp was made the
night before, affords a good site for mills. Fuel abundant; lumber to be obtained
some eight or ten miles higher up on the same range. The party had gone into
camp; some springs of bad alkaline water. Before night fourteen rattlesnakes
had been killed, and it was thought not inappropriate to name this place
"Rattlesnake Springs." Further acquaintance with the locality proved that it was
well to leave a warning in the name for the future traveler.
From this point, the ascent of the mountain known as "Jeff Davis Peak," and
considered the highest point between the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountain
range is made. The summit reached by the moonlight, and a descent to the
line of vegetation, where the rest of the men with the pack animals were in
camp, is made therefrom. An early start in the morning brought us to the top
at 8.30 a. m., and observations for latitude and longitude were taken, the
barometer-observations showing an altitude of at least 13,000 feet. The descent
was more rapid, but not easy, and night found us back at camp completely
exhausted. The next day a march of twenty-three miles is made to Sacramento
District, in a pass of the Snake range.
The road all along Spring Valley had been a rude track, lately made by the
prospectors of the region. Pure water is found in this mountain-pass. Some
little fuel of scant cedar and nut-pine. Generally speaking, the water so far in
our course has been found far better in quality and more frequent in place and
quantity than had been anticipated. There are only a few places that have been
at all alkaline or mineral. This advantage will prove a great one as travel is
directed to any points along the eastern border of the State.
This district is situated in Red Canon Pass of the Snake range, and exposes
to view, on the southern side, the mines that had attracted, at our coming, a
few miners. The products are both silver and gold, found within a limited
compass, and in continuation of the mineral belt to the northward of Shoshone,
and which seems to follow several distinct mountain-chains through Nevada.
The eastern limit shows slate. No present developments indicate a certainty of
large mineral products, yet the average assays have been good, and the ore
is easily mined. Chloride of silver appears in a highly crystallized spar, so near
approaching quartz in hardness, texture, and appearance that it is hardly
possible to distinguish; however, I believe that, so far, no chlorides have been
found in a highly siliceous matrix.
The facilities for the benefit of a good mining-camp are favorable. Water
sufficient, wood enough for fuel, lumber in limited quantities in the mountains,
at not too great distances. Both Spring and Snake Valleys , in the vicinity, are
favorable for the production of the various farm-supplies necessary for
53
sustenance. It is not unlikely that one, or two at least, good leads or deposits
will be found.
So far, our intercourse with the Indians had been limited, appearances indicating
that in many instances they have fled at our approach. The Shoshones and
Gosiutes, in whose country the route had so far lain, have, in years gone by,
suffered greatly at the hands of the United States troops, and our guide and
interpreter was known to them personally, and the word having been passed
along the lines, they had silently taken their departure prior to our coming. This
was indicated in two or three instances by the sight of deserted wick-e-ups, and
it appears as a well-attested fact that they have a great terror of the soldiers.
Emerging from the pass, near Sacramento District, Snake Valley is entered, and
here are encountered some of the Snake Indians, who are in the habit of
occupying the valley in planting and harvesting season, raising scanty crops,
which they cache for the winter use, and then retire to the mountains.
Altogether, we have found some two hundred of these Indians, whose chief,
Blackhawk, is a shrewd and calculating Indian, undoubtedly of a character
superior to the average. These Indians had never received annuities from any
source, and had always, according to their own story, been peaceable and
friendly to the whites. Some Mormons had farmed a ranch near them, about
the center of the valley, but they had never brought anything from the Mormon
side.
The second day's march down Snake Valley leads to Snake Creek, at a point
that proves to be within half a mile of the Utah line. It had been my intention
not to cross this line, as it not only carried me out of the military division of the
Pacific, but also out of any proposed or supposed north and south line of
communication to the Colorado. However, a part of this detour-trip was for the
purpose of finding Preuss Lake, which it still appeared to be of some
satisfaction to attempt.
On the afternoon of the 2d August, a start was made, and next day at 5 p. m.
Hawawah Springs, in sight of the lake, was reached. The next day brought us
to its shores to receive only a disappointment in finding it both salt and brackish
to an extreme degree. A night march to the camp at Hawawah Springs was
made, and after three days forced marching the more permanent camp in Cave
Valley. Our return was upon a rough desert road, made by the Mormons in
1857, when they were looking for places of refuge in case that our troops
molested the quietude of their mountain villages.4
In his Preliminary Report Upon A Reconnaissance Through Southern and Southeastern
Nevada, Made in 1869, Wheeler summarized his observations of the region in great detail,
some of his comments are of significance to this study because they relate to the Snake
Range and adjacent Snake and Spring valleys. In terms of mining, for instance, he noted:
Those mines, including the Sacramento, Snake, Shoshone, and Silver Park
Districts, that commence in the Snake range, and follow down along the
4. Preliminary Report Upon a Reconnaissance Through Southern and Southeastern Nevada, Made in 1869,
pp. 10-12. As a result of this brief side reconnaissance, Wheeler concluded that "the hypothetical lake named
'Preuss,' after Fremont's chief topographer, and hitherto placed on maps as being crossed by the boundary line
between Nevada and Utah, was without doubt the alkaline flat (overflowed from Sevier Lake at seasons of high
water) lying to the southward of this lake, and between the Hawawah and Beaver Creek Ranges." Report Upon
United States Geographical Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian, Vol. I - Geographical Report, p. 28.
54
Fortification Hills, seem to be a short, detached belt, not so far extended as
the others. Above the Nevada, and on the Schell Creek range, some mineral-
districts have been found, but few developments are yet known.
A number of prospectors have at one time and another run over these
mountains, only the more energetic of them striking into the rougher parts,
where lies the exposure of the mineral. For a long time to come new
discoveries will be made, all tending to give a more definite character and
continuity of direction to the mineral belts described.
In line with his instructions, Wheeler collected data on the Indians in eastern and southern
Nevada. Depending primarily on the observations of Henry Butterfield, his guide and
interpreter, Wheeler characterized the various tribes he encountered with such derogatory
epithets as indolent, treacherous, and dangerous. He stated:
The various tribes that were encountered are as follows: Shoshones, Gosiutes,
Snakes, Pahvants, Utes, and Pah-Utes.
The Shoshones are quite numerous, extending over a large section of country
to the south of the Humboldt as far east as the meridian of mountains to east
of Ruby Valley, and as far south as 37 degrees 30 minutes of latitude. Small
parties of them were seen at Halleck, Elko, Ruby Valley, and White Pine.
The Gosiutes are farther to the eastward and northeast, and extend as far south
as the 38th parallel.
Again, to the east are the Snakes, closely analogous in disposition, and
occupying a narrow longitudinal slip.
The Pahvants are found only after the Utah line is passed, and most of them
are to the east and southeast of Preuss Lake - our farthest station in that
direction.
The Indians between Snake and Meadow Valleys are an intermingling of
Snakes, or Utes proper, and Pah-Utes, possessing no peculiarities of either,
except the treachery of both to a heightened degree.
The number of Indians actually seen or accounted for, after leaving White Pine,
was a little less than 2,500. ... I believe that the greater share of them could
be, to a certain extent, domesticated upon one reservation, if properly controlled.
In their present state, speaking of those below the 38th degree of latitude, the
springing up of an intelligent and warlike chief would band them together, and
for a time, if there were no military interference, the lives and properties of the
settlers would be in danger.5
Concerning the agricultural potential of the area traversed, Wheeler observed that of "the
twenty-six valleys visited during the season, ranging in elevation from 2,000 to 7,000 feet,
but a few of the number possess much agricultural area now titled." He further stated:
Along the lines of greatest depression in most of the valleys visited, alluvial
beds of greater or less extent occur, and the limit to their cultivation, except
where alkaline matter are in excess, is only governed by the amount of water-
5. More detailed information on the various Indian tribes encountered by Wheeler may be seen in Appendix E.
55
supply for irrigation that may be made available naturally, since ranching has
been taken up in a very desultory manner, with few points for a market, and
with little enterprise. Usually a ranchero, turning miner upon the first excitement,
and only returning to his ranch when all else fails, but few of the elements that
nature presents have been taken advantage of, and irrigation, when applied, has
been only of the rudest kind, not following any definite plan. The cereals, corn,
potatoes, and many vegetables grow with certainty and yield largely, notably in
Ruby, Pahranagat, Spring, Snake, Duck Lake, Cedar, Rose, Eagle, and Meadow
Valleys.
The mountain grama-grasses, so common in the plateau and other portions of
Arizona, were not noted anywhere this year. The mountain bunch-grass that
extends from Montana to the Mexican boundary on the south, varying as to
altitude in its different geographical distribution, was noted on every mountain
side, without exception, throughout the entire season. Usually it was scant
between the lower foot-hills of the valleys and along routes much traveled this
season, but thousands, and indeed millions, of acres of this lay along our routes
but little of which was available, however, at this time for grazing because of
the want of water; for cattle alone, in many cases this can be remedied. This
is especially true of Spring, Duck Lake, and Snake Valleys, in which, with
success, in my opinion, at many points along the profile of greatest depression,
artesian wells could be sunk, bringing sufficient water to the surface for grazing
and mining purposes, if not sufficient for irrigation on a small scale.
The stock raised in this section of Nevada is principally confined to cattle and
sheep, with a few horses and mules. The former thrive exceedingly well, and
since the completion of the railroad find a ready market. It is believed by those
having experience, that the quality of beef in the cattle driven from Texas to this
section of the country is improved after a few years, on account of the superior
quality of the natural grass. This seems likely to be true of all the immense
grazing-fields of Nevada, and other portions of the great western interior, and
that their value is slowly becoming known can only be looked to with
satisfaction, since numerous herds are now grazing in the valley of the
Mississippi and on the plains of Texas, on lands gradually becoming so valuable
that they will be required for agricultural purposes. We must soon look to the
high mountain-areas for their sustenance and propagation. If these grasses will
submit to an increase of large herds, or to cultivation, and retain their perennial
power, the question of meat-supply for the millions in the United States for
years to come is solved.
Wheeler noted that directly "to the north of the Shoshone District, and on the western
slope of the Snake range, some of the ravines" were thinly studded with pine of good
growth." The pine were "interspersed with fir, also spruce and hemlock." The quantity of
timber in the Snake Range was "not large, but sufficient in amount for all local purposes
connected with the development of the mines in the vicinity."
According to Wheeler, the area of reconnaissance was not "abundant in game in any of its
localities." He noted:
Among large game there deer and antelope are noted. The latter, once
abundant in some of the valleys, have been driven away by the approach of
civilization. Small droves of five or six were seen occasionally upon the route,
but always at distances out of ordinary rifle-shot. The deer that now remain
have been hunted to the mountains and ravines by the Indians, and are as rare
56
as are the summer rains of this climate. They no longer go in herds, but
separate, two by two, to seek secure retreats.
Among the small game are found duck, geese, crane, sage-hen, grouse, quail,
jack and cottontail rabbits. In some sections the duck are very plenty; especially
in Ruby Valley, at Duckwater in Railroad Valley; also in Spring, Snake, and
Meadow Valleys. They appear in turn at most of the valley locations where
there is clear and living water. They were noticed in the greatest numbers
among a nest of lakes in the depression of the valley immediately to the
eastward of Patterson District, one of their great breeding grounds.
The principal species are the teal, mallard, and canvas-back; varieties of each
were noticed, the former predominating. Geese, more migratory in their habits,
were rarely seen, except upon their march for the southward, upon our return,
having come from points further north on their way to a winter resort.
Now and then small parties of large sand-hill cranes were encountered, always
so shy that no success followed any of the attempts to capture them.
The sage-hen, so well known in Nevada, are found more or less in nearly every
one of the valleys, and if not too far advanced in age make a very good dish
for the hungry traveler.
Grouse only appear high up among the mountains, where timber is found, and
hence at very few points. They are perhaps the most delicate eating of any of
the small game and the most difficult to capture.
Rabbits now and then occur, but they are annually decimated by the Indians,
who kill them constantly and persistently.
To the sportsmen duck-shooting offers the most legitimate field for pleasure.
An ordinary traveler passing through the country and depending upon game for
his food would probably starve; even the Indians, the most expert and incessant
of all hunters, are obliged to gather pine-nuts, to supply in a great measure the
necessity for food.
In concluding his report Wheeler commented on the ascent of Jeff Davis or Union Peak
which the men renamed Wheeler Peak in his honor. He observed:
This name has been given to the most elevated point of the Snake range, which
is one of the highest crests between the Sierra Nevada and Wahsatch. It was
found by careful barometric observations to be thirteen thousand and sixty-
three-feet above sea-level; corroborated by angles of elevation taken from points
whose altitudes were determined barometrically, thereby checking errors that are
likely to arise from the use of barometric results at such large altitudes.
Our party, consisting of Rev. Mr. White, acting geologist, State of Nevada;
Lieutenant Lockwood, Messrs. Hamel and Rahskopff, and the guide, Mr.
Butterfield, all succeeded in reaching the top on the morning of the second
day, having left camp at Rattlesnake Springs at 2 p.m. Messrs. White,
Lockwood, and myself reached the summit at 8 p.m. same evening, but were
obliged to return to the limit of vegetation for food and fuel.
57
Meteorological observations were taken during the day, as well as those for time
and latitude; the latter have doubtless seldom been attempted at a greater
altitude. The party by mutual consent, and at the suggestion of Professor
White, proposed that hereafter this point should be called Wheeler's Peak, which
name has been adopted upon the map.
While on the ascent the men found that the timber line on the flanks of the peak was at
11,500 feet. Above that elevation some "few specimens of the species Mimulus
Moschatos, were found . . . clinging to damp places in the rocks, where evidently nothing
of the shrub variety could exist."
When Wheeler reported on his 1869 reconnaissance, he included recommendations for a
general survey extending its operations throughout the West. His suggestions, coming at
a time when Brigadier General Andrew A. Humphreys, chief of the Corps of Engineers,
was keenly aware of the civilian surveys that had preempted one of the army's traditional,
peacetime activities, were promptly taken under serious consideration. Wheeler stressed
that the civilian surveys, such as those of the Colorado River by John Wesley Powell,
eastern Utah by Clarence King, and Wyoming territory by Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden, placed
greatest emphasis upon geology, and their topographical work was coordinated with the
needs of the geologist. The army, however, needed maps that stressed human
developments - mines, farms, villages, roads, railroads, and dams. Military topographical
maps were, according to Wheeler, more essential to the nation's security than the
geological maps produced by Powell, King, and Hayden, because they would stress
"astronomical, geodetic, and topographic observations, with map delineations of all natural
objects, means of communication, artificial and economic features, the geologic and natural
history branches being treated as incidental to the main purpose."7
Thus, the Corps of Engineers inaugurated a major full-blown survey program in 1871,
placing Wheeler in "charge of the exploration ... of those portions of the United States
territory lying south of the Central Pacific Railroad, embracing parts of Eastern Nevada and
Arizona." That year Wheeler traversed some 72,250 square miles, including portions of
eastern California, northwestern and central Arizona, southern and southwestern Nevada,
and southern Utah.8
After Wheeler's complete plan for mapping the West was approved in 1872, he gave his
organization the official title of the United States Geographical Surveys West of the One
Hundredth Meridian. The exhaustive Wheeler surveys continued until 1879, when Congress
terminated the project and created the United States Geological Survey to oversee all future
mapping of the nation.9 During that period, the Wheeler expeditions amassed considerable
scientific, topographic and cartographic data that would be of invaluable use to future
6. Preliminary Report Upon a Reconnaissance Through Southern and Southeastern Nevada, Made in 1869,
pp. 27, 39-41, 57-59, 62.
7. Quoted in Bartlett, Great Surveys of the American West, pp. 337-38.
8. Information on the 1871 expedition, which excluded the area of Great Basin National Park, may be found
in Report Upon United States Geographical Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian, Vol I - Geographical
Report, pp. 30ff; U.S. Army, Engineer Department, Preliminary Report Concerning Explorations and Surveys
Principally In Nevada and Arizona . . . From Brigadier General A.A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers, Conducted
Under the Immediate Direction of 1st Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, 1871 (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1872); and U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Appropriations, Letter from the Secretary of War,
S. Ex. Doc. 65, 42d Cong., 2d Sess., 1872.
9. Bartlett, Great Surveys of the American West, pp. 350-72.
58
geographers of the Great Basin region as well as the larger American West.10 Thus, what
had begun as a reconnaissance of eastern and southern Nevada in 1869 grew into one of
the largest and most significant topographical surveys of the West.11
A JOHN MUIR SURVEY OF THE SNAKE RANGE
During the late 1870s John Muir, a noted naturalist and one of the principal leaders in the
early conservation movement in the United States, visited the Snake Range during one of
his excursions across the West. While on these travels Muir kept journals and notebooks
in which he noted his observations on the flora and fauna, forests, and physiographic
features of the country he was traversing. These documents formed the raw materials of
his articles and books calling for the conservation and protection of America's natural
resources.12
After reconnoitering Nevada's forests, Muir wrote a treatise, entitled "Nevada's Timber Belt,"
at Pioche in October 1878. In this work he described his experiences while ascending the
summit of Wheeler Peak. Among other observations, he noted:
On Wheeler's Peak, the dominating summit of the Snake Mountains, I found
all the conifers I had seen on the other ranges of the State, excepting the
foxtail pine, which I have not observed further east than the White Pine
range, but in its stead the beautiful Rocky Mountain spruce. First, as in the
other ranges, we find the juniper and nut pine; then, higher, the white pine
and balsam fir; then the Douglas spruce and this new Rocky Mountain
spruce, which is common eastward from here, though this range is, as far
as I have observed, its western limit. It is one of the largest and most
important of Nevada conifers, attaining a height of from sixty to eighty feet
and a diameter of nearly two feet, while now and then an exceptional
specimen may be found in shady dells a hundred feet high or more.
The foliage is bright yellowish and bluish green, according to exposure and
age, growing all around the branchlets, though inclined to turn upward from
the under sides, like that of the plushy firs of California, making remarkably
handsome fernlike plumes. While yet only mere saplings five or six inches
thick at the ground, they measure fifty or sixty feet in height and are
beautifully clothed with broad, level, fronded plumes down to the base,
preserving a strict arrowy outline, though a few of the larger branches shoot
out in free exuberance, relieving the spire from any unpicturesque stiffness
of aspect, while the conical summit is crowded with thousands of rich brown
cones to complete its beauty.
We made the ascent of the peak just after the first storm had whitened its
summit and brightened the atmosphere. The foot-slopes are like those of the
10. Scientific information gathered by the Wheeler surveys included extensive geological data on the various
mountain ranges in Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and California. For data on the Snake Range see
Appendix F.
11. For further data on this topic see "The Wheeler Survey in Nevada," Harpers New Monthly Magazine,
LV (June 1877), 65-76, and Report Upon United States Geographical Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian,
Vol I - Geographical Report, Part III, pp. 632ff.
12. For more information on John Muir, see Dumas Malone, ed., Dictionary of American Biography (New
York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1934), VII, 314-17.
59
Troy range, only more evenly clad with grasses. After tracing a long, rugged
ridge of exceedingly hard quartzite, said to be veined here and there with
gold, we came to the North Dome, a noble summit rising about a thousand
feet above the timber-line, its slopes heavily tree-clad all around, but most
perfectly on the north. Here the Rocky Mountain spruce forms the bulk of
the forest. The cones were ripe; most of them had shed their winged seeds,
and the shell-like scales were conspicuously spread, making rich masses of
brown from the tops of the fertile trees down halfway to the ground, cone
touching cone in lavish clusters. A single branch that might be carried in the
hand would be found to bear a hundred or more.
Around the dome and well up toward the summit of the main peak, the
snow-shed was well marked with tracks of the mule deer and the pretty
stitching and embroidery of field mice, squirrels, and grouse; and on the way
back to camp I came across a strange track, somewhat like that of a small
bear, but more spreading at the toes. It proved to be that of a wolverine.
In my conversations with hunters, both Indians and white men assure me that
there are no bears in Nevada, notwithstanding the abundance of pine-nuts,
of which they are so fond, and the accessibility of these basin ranges from
their favorite haunts in the Sierra Nevada and Wahsatch Mountains. The
mule deer, antelope, wild sheep, wolverine, and two species of wolves are
all of the larger animals that I have seen or heard of in the State.13
The following month Muir wrote another paper on "Glacial Phenomena in Nevada" while
staying in Eureka. In this document he made note of his observations on the glacial
characteristics of Wheeler Peak and the Snake Range:
In the course of explorations made to the eastward of here, between the 38th
and 40th parallels, I observed glacial phenomena equally fresh and
demonstrative on all the higher mountains of the White Pine, Golden Gate,
and Snake ranges, varying from those already described only as determined
by differences of elevation, relations to the snow-bearing winds, and the
physical characteristics of the rock-formations.
On the Jeff Davis group of the Snake Range, the dominating summit of
which is nearly thirteen thousand feet in elevation, and the highest ground
in the basin, every marked feature is a glacier monument - peaks, valleys,
ridges, meadows, and lakes. And because here the snow-fountains lay at a
greater height, while the rock, an exceedingly hard quartzite, offered superior
resistance to post-glacial agents, the ice-characters are on a larger scale, and
are more sharply defined than any we have noticed elsewhere, and it is
probably here that the last lingering glacier of the basin was located. The
summits and connecting ridges are mere blades and points, ground sharp by
the glaciers that descended on both sides to the main valleys. From one
standpoint I counted nine of these glacial channels with their moraines
sweeping grandly out to the plains to deep sheer-walled neve-fountains at
their heads, making a most vivid picture of the last days of the Ice Period.14
13. John Muir, "Nevada's Timber Belt," October 1878, in Sfeep Trails: California-Utah-Nevada-Washington-
Oregon-The Grand Canon, ed. by William F. Bade (Boston and New York, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1918), pp.
180-83.
14. "Glacial Phenomena in Nevada," November 1878, in ibid., pp. 188-89.
60
U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY TRIANGULATION STATION ON WHEELER
PEAK
By an act of Congress on June 20, 1878, the U.S. Survey of the Coast was renamed the
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. The new name of this bureau, which was administered
under the Department of the Treasury, reflected the enlarged duties it had been assigned
by Congress on March 3, 1871. At that time the field operations of the survey had been
broadened to include a geodetic connection between the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts
of the United States. Soon the 2,500-mile arc of triangulation along the thirty-ninth parallel
of latitude was commenced. This was the first large land-scale trigonometrical survey of
the nation. When this triangulation survey was completed in 1895 it was considered to be
a major achievement in the history of geodesy.15
The geodetic survey along the 39th parallel investigated the size and shape of the earth,
for which purposes triangulation, traverse, leveling, gravity measurements, and seismological
and astronomical observations were necessary. The survey involved the selection of peaks
on which triangulation stations were established. From these stations measurements were
made, thus creating a triangulation system consisting of a series or network of triangles into
which the earth's surface was divided. By measuring the angles necessary to form the
triangles with a theodolite, it was possible to fix the positions and distance between the
vertices of the triangles. The adjustment of the triangulation was the distribution of the
errors, according to the method of least squares, and the reduction of the triangulation was
the completion by means of trigonometric calculations of the determination of the triangles.
The theodolite was the primary surveying instrument for measuring horizontal and vertical
angles. It was essentially a high-precision transit, consisting of an alidade with telescope,
horizontal compass, accurately graduated circles for reading horizontal and vertical angles,
and the necessary level vials and reading devices. The telescope was mounted so as to
swivel vertically in Y's secured to a revolvable table carrying a vernier for reading horizontal
angles.
During 1 878-79 the Coast and Geodetic Survey commenced geodetic operations in Nevada
and Utah eastward from Lake Tahoe along the 39th parallel. A.F. Rodgers was in charge
of the work with assistance from William Eimbeck, who was assigned to cooperate in the
selection of stations and to occupy those that were "practicable within the fiscal year." In
his annual report for 1879 the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
stated:
Eastward of Lake Tahoe intervisible stations were readily found, but not
related so as to admit of laying out a scheme in quadrilaterals going
eastward. Hence, after due examination, a pentagon was adopted, the
angles meeting at Genoa Peak, and, in geodetic connection with it, two
hexagons, the middle stations of which are within a few miles of the thirty-
ninth parallel. By fourteen intervisible stations the work will be advanced
due east to a distance of four hundred and fifty miles from the California
boundary.
The adjustment of the scheme of triangulation necessitated the ascent of
many mountains exclusive of the positions finally adopted. At each of the
peaks, Assistant Rodgers carefully measured the angles made by lines
15. Dictionary of American History (Rev. ed., New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1976), II, 87-88. For
further data on the history of the geodetic survey along the 39th parallel of latitude, see U.S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey, Geodesy: The Transcontinental Triangulation and the American Arc of the Parallel (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1900), pp. 571-73, 596-97.
61
leading to others, and sketched the outlines of the horizon near the identified
stations, and the mountain masses intervening between them and the point
of observation. The summits visited for purposes of reconnaissance range
in height from eight thousand to upwards of twelve thousand feet.
After traveling in the aggregate more than two thousand miles, Assistant
Rodgers closed field operations on the 7th of November, 1878, and reported
in person at the office in Washington. At those close of the fiscal year
Assistant Eimbeck made preparation for occupying stations of the pentagon
in Nevada.
Thus, by 1879 the scheme of triangles stretching from the Yolo Base in the Coast Range
of California to Mount Nebo in the Wasatch Mountains in Utah had been established. This
scheme included what was known as the "Great Hexagon," which had Wheeler Peak "for
its central point" and comprised some 20,730 square statute miles.16
During the summer of 1881 the work of primary triangulation in Nevada led to the
occupation of the Wheeler Peak station. In his annual report for 1882 the superintendent
of the U.S. Coast and Geoditic Survey observed:
The extension to the eastward of the transcontinental primary triangulation,
by the occupation of stations in Nevada, was placed in charge of Assistant
William Eimbeck. At the beginning of the fiscal year his party was
established in camp upon Mount Callahan, one of the peaks of the Sierra
Nevada, having an elevation of upwards of ten thousand two hundred feet.
Between June 28 and August 3, 1881, observations of horizontal directions
and vertical angles were obtained upon five primary stations, and a number
of secondary points. Observations were also made for time, latitude,
azimuth, and the magnetic elements. A bench-mark was established on the
Nevada Central Railroad, at a distance of about ten miles from the station.
This bench-mark was connected with the triangulation, and the difference of
elevation between it and the station was determined by observations of
vertical angles. This bench-mark and others similarly fixed in position will be
available as stations in lines of level of precision, and their reference in
elevation to the mountain peaks will greatly facilitate the exact determination
of heights.17
After establishing the triangulation station on Mount Callahan, preparations were begun to
occupy nearby peaks for the purpose of building stations and making observations. Three
such peaks were Diamond Mountain near Eureka, White Pine Mountain, and Wheeler Peak,
the latter continuing to be referred to as Jeff Davis Peak in Coast and Geodetic Survey
documents. While Eimbeck took up permanent quarters at Diamond Peak, H.J. Davis
proceeded to Jeff Davis in August 1881. According to the Ward Weekly Reflex of August
20, 1881, Davis
of the U.S. Geodetic Survey, passed through Monday on his way to Jeff
Davis Peak, where he will take up a position and remain until December.
He will occupy the peak under difficulties, as it is unaccessible to anything
that walks on four legs and the nearest water is a mile and a half below
the timber line. Above this line it is a day's climb for many to reach the
16. Annual Report of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1879, p. 64.
17. Annual Report of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1882, p. 58.
62
top. Next year a trail will be made to the top of the peak and a station
built, which will be occupied for the next four years. The Professor being
a man of nerve proposes by means of ropes to give the almost perpendicular
wall - a jumping off place of 2,000 feet - on the east side of the peak a
thorough examination next summer. Mount Moriah, northeast of Jeff Davis,
will also be occupied by a portion of the corps.18
By August 25 the instruments on Mount Callahan and nearby peaks were mounted and in
readiness for beginning observations. In his annual report for 1882 the superintendent of
the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey observed:
These were made at every favorable opportunity, but not without much
interruption from the unusually cold and boisterous weather. Horizontal
directions were observed upon five primary stations, and upon many
secondary objects in twenty positions of the theodolite; double zenith
distances were observed upon all primary and many secondary points;
observations for azimuth upon Polaris were made with the theodolite in
twenty-five positions; for latitude twenty-two pairs of stars were observed for
five nights.
In July 1882 Eimbeck was instructed to visit Mount Nebo and Beaver Mountain in Utah and
"examine the country from these stations with a view of extending to the eastward the
primary triangulation across the Wahsatch Mountains." He was to make observations using
a 50-centimeter theodolite. Upon completion of that task, he "was directed to occupy Jeff
Davis Peak, near the thirty-ninth parallel." Accordingly, Eimbeck "organized his party for
the occupation of Jeff Davis Peak." In his 1883 annual report the superintendent of the
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey elaborated on the work at the peak during 1882-83:
Arrangements were made for the transportation of camp outfit and
instruments to Lehman's Ranch, in Snake Valley, near the northeastern base
of the mountain. Mr. Eimbeck arrived at this ranch on the 22d of September,
and, having explored the mountain for the best location of a trail to the top,
established two camps: the first at an altitude of seven thousand eight
hundred feet, distant about seven miles from the summit; the second about
two miles below the summit and at an altitude of eleven thousand feet.
The trails having been opened and instruments and camp outfit packed to
the top of the peak, heliotroping parties were dispatched to Gosi-ute, Pioche,
and White Pine Stations. The work at Jeff. Davis Peak involved the
determination of horizontal directions from that station to five other limiting
points of a great hexagon, the longest side of which was the line Jeff. Davis
Peak-Mount Nebo, one hundred and fifty miles, and the shortest, Jeff. Davis
Peak-Gosi-ute, sixty-three miles.
Preparations for observing were delayed by violent storms. On the morning
of October 5, after one of these storms, the mercury fell to thirteen degrees
above zero, and the snow at camp was a foot deep. The work was pushed,
however, at every opportunity of favorable weather, and by November 23 the
observations for horizontal directions and for the magnetic elements had been
completed. A few days more sufficed to obtain all needful observations for
double zenith distances. During November the lowest temperature recorded
18. Ward Weekly Reflex, August 20, 1881.
19. Annual Report of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1882, pp. 58-59.
63
was twenty degrees below zero (Fahr.). Field operations were closed and
the party disbanded early in December.
In April, 1883, he was instructed to extend the reconnaissance to the
eastward of the line Mount Nebo-Beaver by occupying such points as would
determine definitely the most advantageous figure for continuing the main
triangulation across the Wahsatch Mountains. A change in the position of
station "Beaver" for the proper development of this figure appearing
unavoidable from previous examinations, he was authorized to establish a
new station upon one of the neighboring peaks, so located as not to affect
the essential geometrical conditions of the great hexagon, and to refer the
observed direction Jeff. Davis-Beaver to the new station of the re-occupation
of Jeff.Davis Peak.20
During 1882 the brilliancy of the reflected moonlight on Wheeler Peak led to experiments
with a selenoscope, an instrument for observing the moon, for occasional night use.
The best account of the technical work conducted at the triangulation station on Wheeler
Peak during October-November 1882 appears in the field books and logs of William
Eimbeck in the archives of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. According
to Eimbeck, a 20-inch theodolite (C.S. No. 5) was used to make the observations. The
instrument "stood accurately centered" on a "copper bolt" marking the triangulation station
"mounted and protected in all respects." Eimbeck went on to detail the technical aspects
of his labor:
All essential adjustments were carefully made before regular observations
were attempted. The adjustments of the microscopes, both with respect to
Run and position remained essentially as heretofore and were left undisturbed
throughout these obs. The observations were confined to the six directions
of the Hexagon excepting a few pointings upon the "cairn" of "Duckwater,"
a subsidiary station, towards close of the work. As heretofore, all obs. were
referred to a "Reference Mark," which was target shaped - 7 ins. wide and
about 8 feet high. It was of stone and timber, rigidly framed and set up at
a "spur-summit," about 2 mis. distant northwardly from the A Station. Its
direction is fixed by a copper bolt set in the solid bedrock. The "Mark" was
black and stood out distinct against its distant sombre background of sage
and sand. As viewed from the A Station its Depression was 6° 42'. Owing
to this great depression as also that of Pioche Sta. care was taken to always
maintain, throughout the obs., close verticality in "center" of the Theodol. Of
course the Instrument was not interfered with, on this account during obs. of
a series, which were conducted with uniform care and circumspection,
precisely in the manner and to the same extent as at station heretofore
occupied. This is to say observations were obtained in two, three or more
series, in each of the 25 Positions of the Theodol. To balance the + and -
connections for "Run" the Positions, which are evenly distributed on the
circle, they were set off with considerable precision. And to cancel any
errors from the obs. - depending in some way on the hour of the day, they
were so made as to balance approx., likewise with respect to number of
pointings during the A.M. and P.M. hours of the day. The obs. during the
noon hours, which were undertaken for the sake of pushing the work, were
classed as P.M. obs. The signals observed upon in the case of the six
20. Annual Report of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1883, pp. 68-69. The
station on Jeff Davis Peak was probably built like others of its kind - rock about five feet in height, furnished with
a tent covering.
64
primary directions, were heliotropes, mounted upon rigid stands about 5 feet
above the ground and accurately in the vertical of the station mark. In the
case of Mt. Nebo sun-light was reflected from a mirror 4 ins. square and
showed well at all times on that length of line, viz. about 150 mis.21
While conducting the geodetic survey along the 39th parallel, the Coast and Geodetic
Survey participated in the international efforts to observe the Transit of Venus on December
9, 1874, and again on December 6, 1882. Under the auspices of the Transit of Venus
Commission observations of the rare event were made, and triangulation measurements
were conducted to determine the distance from the earth to the sun.22 Thus, while he was
at Lehman's Ranch in Snake Valley on December 6, 1882, Eimbeck conducted
observations of the Transit of Venus.23
During 1883 further triangulation work was carried out in eastern Nevada and western Utah
- work which included the reoccupation of Jeff Davis Peak. This season's work was
described at length in the annual report of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey for 1884:
The development of a single definite figure, as above described, was all that
was contemplated in carrying on the reconnaissance. Hence, on completing
the examination at the Tushar Mountains, further reconnaissance work was
suspended, and the party was transferred to Jeff. Davis Peak, the re-
occupation of which was rendered necessary by the abandonment of
"Beaver" station and the substitution for it of "Belknap." After a tedious and
toilsome journey through two hundred miles of a desolate country, the party
arrived at Lehman's Ranch, near the eastern base of Jeff. Davis Peak on the
19th of July and at once began preparations for the ascent of the peak,
which rises to a height of thirteen thousand one hundred feet. By the 26th
of July camp was established at the summit.
Three days' observations would have sufficed to determine the difference in
directions of the heliotropes at Beaver and Belknap, but owing to thunder-
storms, which hung almost constantly over the peak, and the distant
mountains as well, it was the 6th of August before all of the observations
needed could be obtained. Mr. Eimbeck remarks that the trials of the ten
days' life of the party among the clouds were more severe and dangerous
than had been experienced for several years. The violence of the electric
discharges, the thunder-claps, and the energy of the piping sound of the
escaping electricity was not unfrequently so alarming that the party had to
seek safety behind and under ledges of rock some distance below the
summit of the peak, which was often struck by lightning. The tent occupied
by the men was also struck, but fortunately at a time when no one was in
it.
21. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Carlile P. Patterson, Superintendent, Section XVI, State: Nevada,
34098, Observations of Horizontal Directions, Locality - Jeff Davis Pk. A Station, White Pine County .... 1882,
Chief of Party - William Eimbeck, 5 Vols., Vol. I, Archives, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
Rockville, Maryland.
22. Dictionary of American History, II, 88, and E.A. Fath, The Elements of Astronomy (New York, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955), p. 183.
23. A copy of Eimbeck's report on his observations of the Transit of Venus at Lehman's Ranch may be
seen in Appendix G.
65
The work of the season to [October 1] . . . includes, besides the usual
observations of horizontal directions and vertical angles, together with the
necessary meteorological observations, determinations of time, latitude, and
azimuth, and a complete set of observations for magnetic declination, dip,
and intensity. Occasion was taken also, especially when at Lehman's Ranch,
to carry out local triangulations, connecting the State boundary between
Nevada and Utah, and thereby the land surveys of those two States with the
geodetic work. The station near Lehman's Ranch at which the Transit of
Venus of 1 882 was observed by Mr. Eimbeck was connected with the main
triangulation at Jeff. Davis Peak and at Pioche.
From Jeff. Davis Peak a new determination was made of the azimuths of the
reference marks of Tres-Pinos and Snake Valley magnetic stations, as
occupied during the previous season.24
While engaged in the summer triangulation work in 1883 Eimbeck prepared a detailed
description of the ice mass on Jeff Davis Peak. While Simpson had noted the presence
of snow on the peak in late July 1859 and the Wheeler surveys and Muir had commented
on the glaciers near the summit, Eimbeck described the ice mass in detail. He passed this
information, along with a sketch, to the U.S. Geological Survey, which printed the data in
its 1883-84 annual report. The treatise, entitled "Permanent Ice On the Mountains of the
Great Basin," stated:
The arid region of interior drainage included between the Sierra Nevada and
the Wasatch Mountains, known as the Great Basin, is diversified by many
rugged mountain ranges, some of which attain an altitude of from 10,000 to
more than 13,000 feet. The climate is arid and the country desert-like
throughout. ... A region more unfavorable for the formation of glaciers
could scarcely be found; yet, as shown by the observations of Mr. William
Eimbeck, of the United States Coast Survey, there is a body of ice on Jeff
Davis peak, one of the highest mountains in the Great Basin, that
approaches the condition of a glacier, and indicates that a moderate lowering
of temperature would cause glaciers to form on the higher peaks in the
central and northern part of the Great Basin. That a moderate climatic
change would produce such a result is also evident from the fact that during
the glacial epoch, when the higher mountains of Utah and California were
buried beneath vast n&ve fields, some of the intermediate ranges, including
Jeff Davis Peak, also bore glaciers.
The most striking feature of the mountain is the deep, broad chasm, dividing
the no doubt once continuous hog-back ridge into two distinct peaks, as
shown in the accompanying sketch. Measured along the crest line the width
of this chasm is 4,000 feet, and its depth not less than 2,000 feet. It lays
open to view the entire geologic structure of the mountain, and deep down
in the shadow of its walls lies an ice-body, hidden and effectually protected
against the direct influence of the sun. When seen in August, 1883, this ice-
mass was about 1,500 feet in length, with an average width of about 200
feet. Its depth could not be determined, but was apparently between 20 and
30 feet. The surface of the ice was without fissures or moraines, yet
evidently possessed a definite structure as indicated by different tints and
shades of bluish green. The average dip of the ice is about 50°, and its
elevation above the sea 11,800 feet. Nothing resembling a moraine could
24. Annual Report of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1884, pp. 78-79.
66
be seen near the foot of the ice, but ancient moraines occur about a mile
down the canon, which record the lower limit of the ice-stream which formerly
flowed from the same cirque that shelters the present ice-body.
Records of ancient glaciers on Jeff Davis Peak were observed by Mr. Gilbert
in 1872, who considers the small lakes on the northern slope of the mountain
as being confined by morainal deposits. This mountain is thought to be the
highest in the Great Basin, and, with the exception of the East Humboldt
Mountains, is the only one known to retain snow or ice about its summit
throughout the year.25
Triangulation observations to Jeff Davis Peak continued from Utah Territory during the late
1880s. In 1885 measurements were made from Mount Tushar (earlier known as Mount
Belknap), Mount Nebo in 1886, and Pilot Peak and Ibapah in 1888-89.26 The last series
of observations to Jeff Davis Peak was completed in 1889. These operations were
described by the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in his annual
report for 1890:
Having organized his party before the beginning of the fiscal year and made
all arrangements needed for the occupation of Pilot Peak, the 1st of July,
1889, found Mr. Eimbeck on the summit of the peak, establishing camp and
mounting the instruments.
25. Fifth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1883-84, pp. 342-43. A copy of Eimbeck's
sketch of Jeff Davis Peak may be seen on the following page.
26. Annual Report of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1886, p. 89; 1887, p. 86;
1889, p. 91; and 1890, pp. 89-90.
67
U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SUBVEV
FIFTH ANNUAL HF.I'ORT PL. LI
SKETCH OF JEFF L>AVIS 1'EAK, NEVADA.
68
Observations of horizontal directions and double zenith distances were begun
July 3. The number of primary points observed upon was six, counting the
reference mark as one. Two of the longest lines of the Utah work were
included, Pilot-Nebo, and Pilot-Jeff Davis, both approximately 148 miles long.
Work upon the secondary points was also made as complete as possible,
including several of the points connecting with the Terrace and Lucin base-
line, 37 kilometres in length, which had been measured along the Central Pacific
Railroad by Lieutenant Wheeler when he was in charge of surveying parties in
this region. All of these points are marked by substantial rock monuments or
cairns.
In 1895 the 2,500-mile arc of triangulation along the 39th parallel was completed. Five
years later the bureau published a report on the history, findings, and accomplishments of
the geodetic survey. That portion of the triangulation between the Salt Lake Base Net and
Yolo Base Net in the Coast Range of California was known as the Nevada Series. One
of the triangulation stations for this series was Wheeler Peak.28 Commenting on the
topography between the two base nets, survey officials noted that the mountains were
remarkable chiefly for parallelism and uniformity in an approximate northerly
and southerly trend. These singular ranges, with their features preserved for
a hundred miles, appear like solidified waves crested through folding. The
corrugations, or parallel ranges, seem to follow each other at regular intervals
throughout that large expanse of the State here under special consideration.
While the valleys are nearly level and between 5 000 and 6 000 feet above
the sea, the ridges rise on the average to over 10 000 feet (or 3 150 meters,
nearly) and culminate at Wheeler Peak at an altitude of over 13 000 feet (3 973
meters, nearly). Their profile or crest lines are rugged and rocky and in some
instances difficult of access. Though the topography may be intricate in
ascending one of the transverse canyons, nearly every one of the stations was
found to have an accessible slope. Excepting a few valleys in Utah and in west
Nevada along the Carson and Humboldt, put partly under cultivation by
irrigation, this entire basin is an arid and barren waste, irredeemable for want
of flowing water; little or none is found anywhere except in the rills coming down
from timber patches and meadows of the uplands of the most prominent ranges.
The lower declivities of the ranges and the intervening low alkali lands covered
with sage brush are equally sterile. The general aspect of the country is dull
and monotonous. Only between the 7 000 and 11 000 feet levels are to be
found an assemblage of clusters of pines, alpine meadows, and water supply
from springs or melting snow. Except for an occasional well dug at some way
station, stretches of country from 40 to 60 miles would be without water.
27. Annual Report of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1890, p. 89.
28. A copy of the triangulation system for the Nevada Series may be seen on the following page.
69
70
According to the final report, the triangulation system of the Nevada Series had been
established "on the longest scale conformable to the natural topographic features of the
country . . . attaining as well the practical solution of the problem demanded by the
trigonometric connection of that part of the coast of California which lies in the vicinity of
latitude 39° with the crest of the Sierra Nevada lying opposite to it." Under the immediate
direction of Eimbeck, an average of two triangulation stations had been operated each
season, the occupation of each requiring about two months. The seasons during which
operations were conducted generally lasted from June to November, although scarcely a
season passed without a party being weather-bound by storms in October. At one point
in 1882, for instance, a party on Wheeler Peak was practically buried in a snowdrift ten to
twelve feet deep, the temperature plummeting to 20 degrees below zero Fahrenheit. The
high snowdrifts "covered the living tents to within a foot or two of the apex," thus saving
the party from freezing to death. So that observations could be continued from Wheeler
Peak "deep and broad trenches had to be cut through the snowdrifts in the line of sight."
This party, as well as those at Tushar, Ibapah, and Mount Nebo, suffered much from the
intensity of the cold wave, and "the value of the services of these men, two at each station
"could not be overestimated."
Some changes in procedures were made during the triangulation work on the Nevada
Series. Throughout the region the equalization of the number of measures of horizontal
directions at a station taken in the forenoon and afternoon was put into effect in 1880. The
purpose of this procedure was to eliminate any effect of unequal heating of the theodolite
as well as to provide against possible lateral refraction along the lines of sight. Thus,
observations of zenith distances were made at three different periods of the day.
The geodetic point on Wheeler Peak was situated on the "western or highest prong of the
double peak" and was "marked as a subsurface mark" by "a half-inch copper bolt set in
solid rock in the center of the foundation pier for the theodolite." The pier was "covered
by a stone slab having a three-fourths-inch drill hole in its center, securely cemented in the
top as a surface mark." The "vertical circle station" was "located to the eastward of the
geodetic point, distant 173.06 feet, and both points were surrounded with circular stone
walls, which were left standing." Three drill holes served as reference marks on the peak
- "one north, distant 8.17 feet; one in a southeast direction, distant 8.53 feet; and one in
a southwest direction, distant 7.87 feet, from the geodetic point."29
The report stated further that "much that has been said respecting the movements of the
party, its organization, labor, exposure, and work in the Rocky Mountain section applies
also to the Nevada-California section." Moreover, the "instruments and methods of
observing were the same as in the Rocky Mountain section." Thus, it is important to
examine the portion of the report devoted to the Rocky Mountain Series.
According to the report, the principal "drawback" to the prosecution of the triangulation work
"was the almost total absence of modern ways of transportation, ordinary freight wagons
and pack animals being the only means available." The document described the common
difficulties of transportation:
The wagon roads had frequently to be made passable by building bridges
across gullies. Lower camps were established at the end of transportation
by wagon, and a pack trail was located and opened to the upper camp,
usually distant 5 to 10 miles, and involving much cutting of fallen timber,
grading, and blasting or quarrying of rocks; the ascent was usually between
3,000 and 7,000 feet. Ordinarily about 10,000 pounds (say, 5,000 kilograms)
29. Geodesy: The Transcontinental Triangulation, pp. 571-73, 596-97.
71
of outfit, instruments, and provisions had to be transported to the upper camp
- usually two weeks' labor - for which purpose from 5 to 7 pack mules were
employed, each carrying as a load about 150 pounds - rarely and
exceptionally as much as 200 pounds - according to length of trial,
steepness, and height of ascent. The transportation of the great theodolite,
weighing with packing box about 200 pounds, required from one to two days.
Sometimes it was carried by hand; at other times it was drawn by a horse
and guided by men. This was accomplished by men carrying and guiding
it while a horse was pulling it by means of a rope.
Considerable work on the mountain tops, according to the report, was required preparatory
to establishing the triangular stations. The instruments
were mounted on masonry or rock, the observer stood upon a raised floor,
and the whole was walled in and surmounted by a stout canvas tent in order
to break the force of the wind. The theodolite stood upon its iron position
stand, and was effectively protected against direct sunlight and radiant heat
by the double-walled and double-roofed observing tent. As the occupation
of a station covered about one month, only two principal stations a year
could be disposed of, since the favorable season lasted but four months.
The reconnaissance was made by Assistant Eimbeck pari passu with the
occupation of the station. The party of occupation was composed of three
officers and a recorder, with the necessary complement of men acting as
packers, drivers, and cooks, the whole party consisting of 12 or 13 persons.
The heliotropers stationed in pairs at the distant stations numbered from 10
to 20, according to the requirements of the figure of the triangulation. In
consequence of their long connection with the work, these heliotropers had
acquired the needful training and familiarity with their duties; they lived in
tents or stone cabins or "dugouts," close to their stations, and considering
the exposure and isolation of their positions it must be conceded that they
acquitted themselves well of their trying and responsible duty.
With few exceptions "the horizontal directions and zenith distances were observed upon
heliotrope light." The report described the instruments and methodology of making
observations:
As a rule the reflectors were of square shape, varying in dimensions from 1
to 6 inches, and as a matter of experience it was found that a 3-inch mirror
sufficed for lines of from 80 to 100 miles, but 4-inch mirrors were needed for
lines of 100 to 150 miles; the longest line demanded a square mirror of 6
inches (15 centimeters). The signaling or call lights used at the observing
station consisted of reflectors from 8 to 12 inches (20 to 30 centimeters) in
size; these powerful lights were easily discernible with the unaided eye by
the heliotropers, even up to distances of 150 statute miles (240 kilometres),
and served them for directing their mirrors at the beginning of an occupation
of a station; they were also used for communication. On long easterly and
westerly oriented lines the curious phenomenon of getting the reflected
sunlight thrown to the station at which the sun was already below the
horizon, was frequently observed, and at times lasted several minutes.
The horizontal directions at all the stations were observed with the 50-
centimeter (20-inch) theodolite, originally in 19 . . . positions of the azimuth
circle. The intention was to secure two full sets in each position and to
balance the number of observations of the morning and evening, but on
account of unavoidable broken series their numbers had generally to be
72
increased for each position. Respecting the time of observations, they were
made from sunrise till 8 o'clock, and resumed in the afternoon at half past
4 o'clock and continued till sunset. The seeing was usually better in the
morning than in the evening; excessive brilliancy of the light was screened
off by breathing upon the ocular. The focal length of the instrument is 106
centimeters (42 inches), and the magnifying power, using the "half-inch"
eyepiece, 83 diameters. A zero or reference mark was used at all stations;
it generally was a black target of such dimensions as to present an apparent
angular width of 16 seconds. To secure observations under a variety of
atmospheric conditions, observations were extended over twenty or more
days. Double zenith distances for heights of stations were observed at three
different periods of the day, viz, between 6-1/2 and 8 o'clock in the morning,
between 11-1/2 and 1 o'clock, and again between 4-1/2 and 6 o'clock in the
evening. This brought to light the fact that the minimum refraction of the day
occurs late in the afternoon, even after the heat of the day has passed. As
a rule these vertical angle measures were spread over not less than twelve
days, at least for the main lines. Since the vertical circle was necessarily
mounted eccentrically and at a given height above the station mark, the
heliotrope also being at a certain elevation, a reduction of the observed
zenith distances to refer them to a line "from ground to ground" was required.
No simultaneous reciprocal zenith distances were obtained.
The triangulation parties also "made observations of the magnetic declination, dip, and
intensity, and meteorological notes were regularly kept."
To "adequately" describe the triangulation stations and their approaches a "rough
topographic survey was usually made of the region immediately surrounding it and covering
from a few to, maybe, 20 square miles." This "topographical knowledge" was also useful
"to form a judgment of the probable deflection of the vertical." The triangulation parties
determined "a comprehensive number of second order points for general topographic
purposes." These points were "mostly principal mountain peaks, and were marked, when
accessible, by a cairn conical in shape, about 6 feet high and 4 feet in diameter at the
base." Every "principal station" was "marked by a copper bolt in the rock or masonry, but
not infrequently bolts" were "placed in a north, south, east, or west direction (tree) where
bedrock" permitted "and just outside the ring wall." The "extra bolts" could "not be
mistaken for the central or station bolt so long as the wall or masonry" remained "intact."30
In 1906 the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey triangulated a small area at Ely, Nevada, in
connection with the survey for a special map. Under the supervision of Fred McLaughlin
four primary stations were occupied, and several secondary points cut in from them. The
positions, distances, and azimuths depended upon the points on Wheeler Peak and Ward
North, the former a primary and the latter a secondary station.31
30. Ibid, pp. 552-54. In recent years considerable attention has been devoted to the presumed designation
of the station on Wheeler Peak as a heliograph station, such as those used by the U.S. Army during the Indian
wars in the American Southwest during the 1860s. Based on the research documentation gathered by the author
of this study, it appears to be a well-substantiated fact that the station was a U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
triangulation station associated with the survey of the 39th parallel. It is safe to infer, however, that the signal used
at Wheeler Peak was that of a heliotrope instrument. This determination was confirmed in correspondence between
the author of this study and Elizabeth B. Wade, Chief, Horizontal Network Branch, National Geodetic Survey,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration on February 10 and April 19, 1989.
31. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Triangulation and Primary Traverse for 1906, 1907, and 1908
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1909), pp. 411-14.
73
The triangulation site on Wheeler Peak was examined by U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
personnel on three occasions in 1925, 1944, and 1957. The data compiled during these
field investigations may be seen in Appendix H.
74
CHAPTER SIX
MINING DEVELOPMENT IN THE SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE
INTRODUCTION
In the wake of the White Pine mining rush of the late 1860s six mining districts were
established in the area of present-day Great Basin National Park between 1869 and 1900.
These included the Snake (Bonita), Shoshone (Minerva, Lexington, Tungsten), Mount
Washington (Lincoln), Osceola (Weaver Creek, Summit Diggings, Hogum, Willard Creek),
Tungsten (Hub, Lincoln, Shoshone), and Lexington (Lexington Canyon, Shoshone) districts.1
The purpose of this chapter will be to provide a historical narrative of the White Pine
mining rush and the mining development in each of these districts.
Because the mining districts were generally established before townships were surveyed,
the districts were described in general terms flexible enough to allow for new discoveries
in each recording area. This practice led to some overlapping of district boundaries at
times. In this study the arbitrary boundaries for the districts as used by the Nevada Bureau
of Mines and Geology in its Bulletin 85, Geology and Mineral Resources of White Pine
County, Nevada (1976) will be followed. Since the mining districts have been known by
different names at various times, the district names in this study will follow those used in
the bulletin.2
1. Data on the geology of the Snake Range as it relates to mining may be found in U.S. Geological Survey,
Bulletin 208, Descriptive Geology of Nevada South of the Fortieth Parallel and Adjacent Portions of California, by
Josiah Edward Spurr (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1903) , pp. 25-36; Nevada Bureau of Mines and
Geology, Bulletin 85, Geology and Mineral Resources of White Pine County, Nevada (Reno, Mackey School of
Mines, University of Nevada, 1976), Part I "Geology," by Richard K. Hose and M.C. Blake, Jr., pp. 3-32; and U.S.
Geological Survey, Geological Survey Professional Paper 668, Hybrid Granitoid Rocks of the Southern Snake Range,
Nevada, by Donald E. Lee and Richard E. Van Loenan (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1971).
2. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, "Mineral Resources," by Roscoe M. Smith, p.
39. A copy of a map accompanying Bulletin 85 that shows the boundaries of the six mining districts may be seen
on the following page.
75
T. 14 N.
38°45'
T. 10 N.
NTY
R 67 E
114°15'
76
WHITE PINE MINING RUSH
The discovery of the Comstock Lode in western Nevada in 1 859 led to one of the greatest
mining rushes in the Great Basin. Here on the south flank of the Virginia Range, one of
the richest silver deposits in the world lay shallowly buried beneath the surface. Its
discovery led to the establishment of mining centers at Gold Hill and Virginia City and
quickly transformed the sparsely settled frontier into a thriving and bustling mining center.
Thousands of miners were attracted to the area, the greatest majority crossing the Sierra
Nevada from the dwindling gold fields of the Mother Lode in California.
After five years of extensive development the Comstock Lode was struck in 1864 by a
general mining depression as a result of the near depletion of its early discoveries. This
depression lasted until the discovery of deeper and richer deposits following 1867. This
depression, however, aided the development of outlying mining districts throughout Nevada
in that prospectors and miners, discouraged with the decline of the Comstock, fanned out
searching for other bonanzas.3
This search led to numerous mining discoveries in central, eastern, and southern Nevada.
Mining rushes, for instance, developed around the boom towns of Aurora in 1860-61, Austin
in the Reese River Valley in 1862-63, and Eureka in 1864. Other rushes developed in the
Humboldt Range in 1860-62 and the Pahranagat and Meadow valleys in 1864-65.4
Miners continued to spread throughout eastern Nevada in search of new mineral deposits.
In spring 1865 prospectors from Austin explored eastward until their attention was drawn
to the prominent White Pine Mountain (present-day Mount Hamilton). Near the head of
Mohawk Canyon they discovered evidence of silver deposits and soon established the
White Pine Mining District.
The mining district was a fundamental example of popular sovereignty. In the absence of
a federal code to govern the orderly exploitation of mineral lands, the miners made their
own laws. These regulations were eventually recognized by state and federal courts as
legally binding. California's "Forty-Niners" began the practice of establishing mining districts
and took it with them when they spread to other areas such as Nevada.
With the initial discovery of mineral deposits in a new locality, the first miners at the site
formed a mutually binding compact which would govern all others who came to the new
location. The resident miners at the new discovery held a mass meeting and declared a
3. John Michael Bourne, "Early Mining in Southwestern Utah and Southeastern Nevada, 1864-1872: The
Meadow Valley, Pahranagat, and Pioche Mining Rushes" (Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Utah, 1973), p.
85, and Robert B. Merrifield, "Nevada, 1859-1881: The Impact of an Advanced Technological Society Upon a
Frontier Area" (Unpublished Ph.D dissertation, University of Chicago, 1957), pp. 122 ff.
4. The Silver Mines of Nevada (New York, William C. Bryant & Co., 1 864); J. Ross Browne's Illustrated Mining
Adventures: California & Nevada, 1863-1 865 (Reprint ed., Balboa Island, California, Paisano Press, 1961); Donald
R. Abbe, Austin and the Reese River Mining District: Nevada's Forgotten Frontier (Reno, University of Nevada
Press, 1985); Oscar Lewis, The Town That Died Laughing: The Story of Austin, Nevada; Rambunctious Early-
Day Mining Camp, and Of Its Renowned Newspaper, The Reese River Reveille (Reno, University of Nevada Press,
1986); Lambert Molinelli, Eureka and Its Resources: A Complete History of Eureka County, Nevada (Reno,
University of Nevada Press, 1982); J. Ross Browne, Resources of the Pacific Slope (New York, D. Appleton and
Company, 1869), pp. 395 ff.; and Nevada Bureau of Mines, Report 7, Outline of Nevada Mining History (Reno,
Mackey School of Mines, 1964), Part I, "An Outline of the Mining History of the State of Nevada (1855-1923)," by
Francis Church Lincoln, pp. 3-6.
77
self-governing mining district to be in existence. The district would include the new
discovery and its environs and would exist as long as it was needed.5
About a dozen miners assembled on the slopes of White Pine Mountain on October 10,
1865, to establish the White Pine Mining District, an area encompassing some twelve
square miles. Under the leadership of Robert Morrell as president, the group agreed to
allow each claimant two hundred feet on any "lead" in the district with a right to follow all
"dips, spurs, angles, offshoots, outcrops, depths, and variations" wherever they might lead.
In accordance with established practice, the discoverer of any new "ledge or lode" was to
receive a double claim. After locating his claim, the prospector was required to post a
written notice on the ground and record his location within fourteen days. District laws
could not be amended, altered, or repealed for two years.
As usual, the recorder was the key man in the mining district, and Thomas J. Murphy was
elected to the job for a two-year term. It was his duty to keep a "full and truthful" record
of the proceedings of all public meetings of the miners, to record all claims and notices
brought to him in the order of their date, and to make certain new claims did not conflict
with the old. The recorder's books were to be open at all times for public inspection, but
they were not to be examined except in his, or his deputy's, presence, thus preventing
alteration of the records. An unusual decision was made when the recorder was not
required to reside in the district, thus permitting him to leave the district temporarily in
search of better prospects during his two-year term as long as he designated a deputy to
act in his absence. If he were unable to perform his duties during his term of office, a
successor could be elected at a meeting called upon the petition of fifty miners in the
district, provided there were that many around. Notices of the meeting call were to be
posted in the district and advertisements placed in the Reese River newspapers for thirty
days so interested parties could arrange to attend. Accordingly, equality of opportunity was
preserved and the democratic process provided for under specified conditions, and the
founders made certain that they controlled the district, at least until its potential could be
determined.6
Despite establishment of the White Pine Mining District, little work was done until 1866,
when three partners - Murphy, Marchand, and Leathers, organized the Monte Cristo Mining
Company with financial backing from Philadelphia promoters. The new company produced
about 59,000 ounces of silver and quantities of copper, lead, iron, and antimony from the
Enterprise Mine and the Monte Cristo mill in 1867. During the summer of 1867, however,
Leathers, one of the original prospectors in the district, was shown an outcropping of silver
ore on Treasure Hill in the White Pine Range by an Indian named Napias-Jim. Before
winter sent in, he, his partners, and others filed claims, and news of the discovery began
5. Merrifield, "Nevada, 1859-1881," pp. 18-19; Douglas C. McMurtrie, comp., Nevada Mining Laws: The Text
of the Local Laws and Regulations Enacted By Four Local Mining Districts in Nevada, 1863 (Chicago, The Black
Cat Press, 1935), pp. 7-31; and Russell Richard Elliott, "The Early History of White Pine County, Nevada: 1865-
1887" (Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Washington, 1938), pp. 47-53.
6. W. Turrentine Jackson, Treasure Hill: Portrait of a Silver Mining Camp (Tucson, University of Arizona
Press, 1963), pp. 5-6. A copy of the laws of the White Pine Mining District, dated October 10, 1865, may be seen
in Appendix I. The laws were amended on July 20, 1867. A copy of the amended laws may also be seen in the
aforementioned appendix.
7. Russell Richard Elliott, "The Early History of White Pine County, Nevada: 1865-1887," Pacific Northwest
Quarterly, XXX (1939), 149-50.
78
to spread. With the arrival of spring in 1868 there was a stampede of prospectors into
the area, a frenzied staking of claims, and the beginnings of a large-scale mining rush.8
The principal reason for the White Pine mining rush was the richness of the ore. What had
been discovered was a large deposit of high grade silver ore, the result of supergene
enrichment which had concentrated the silver in a relatively shallow surface deposit. The
ore was generally silver chloride, and some samples assayed at thousands of dollars per
ton while others were almost in the form of metallic silver or silver dust. The richness of
the deposit captured the imagination of the western mining industry, and, by the summer
of 1868, interest in the new district was at a high pitch. The result was a large-scale,
intense mining rush into the area, involving not only prospectors and miners but also
merchants, mill operators, and professional men. The rush was especially active in 1869,
as new transportation services to Treasure Hill were organized.9
The impact of the discovery on Treasure Hill can be found in various contemporary
accounts. On December 14, 1868, for instance, one miner wrote:
White Pine is undoubtedly one of the, if not the richest and most extensive
mining localities discovered since California. The mines are not confined to one
locality but extend over a scope of country some fifty by one hundred miles, and
the new developments have turned out equally as rich as the first discovery.
Two men doing business . . . have just returned from there who went out for
the purpose of procuring places for business say that there is no question about
the richness and extent of the mines. Only the one that pays from three to five
hundred is worked in the mills the richer one requires to be smelted - two
hundred dollars ore is too poor to be worked at the present time. Now I should
like to go out there this winter and intend to if I can raise the means for I think
it is the best opening for making money that has occurred on this coast for a
good many years either in mining, locating town property or business.10
One of the best descriptions of the White Pine mining rush was given by Albert S. Evans
in the March 1869 issue of Overland Monthly. He observed:
Across the wide, treeless Mirage Valley, over the low Pancake Mountain, across
another and narrower valley, and we enter at last the long winding canon which
leads up into the White Pine Mountain Range and terminates at Hamilton. . .
. Long lines of mules and oxen, drawing heavy wagons, laden with supplies
of every kind - mill machinery, whiskey, provisions, whiskey, hardware, whiskey,
mule feed, and whiskey again - "jerk-water" stages, which had been three or
four days making the trip of one hundred and ten miles from Hamilton with
passengers for the mines; mine owners, or those who had but recently sold
mines, and were flush, on horseback; bull-whackers, in soldiers' coats, with
whips a dozen feet in length on poles longer still, just in from Austin or
Wadsworth; honest miners, with salted claims, ready to sell to the newly-arrived
greenhorns; footpackers, without a cent, who had packed their blankets and
8. Newspaper articles detailing the White Pine rush include those in the Sacramento Daily Union, July 1,
24, and 29, 1868, and the Daily Alta California, February 12, March 27, April 21, 28, and May 9, 1869.
9. Bourne, "Early Mining in Southwestern Utah and Southeastern Nevada," pp. 86-88, and Rodman Wilson
Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848-1880 (Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 1963), pp. 106-
08.
10. John Curtis to [William H.] Taylor, December 14, 1868, Mitchell Papers, 1858-1887, Manuscript Department,
Huntington Library, San Marino, California.
79
luggage all the way from Elko . . . painted Jezebels from every mining camp
from Idaho to Sonora; Shoshone Indians, Chinamen, and "capitalists," who in
San Francisco were never known as men with plethoric bank account,
excitement, and confusion. The stores and saloons were crowded with men in
huge overcoats, the pockets of which were filled with big specimens, small silver
bars, and rolls of location notices and assay certificates, buying, selling, and
talking mines, and "bummers" of the seediest class, who drank at the expense
of every stranger who approached the bar - swore, talked, fought, and
"swapped" filthy lies from morning to night. In the evening the streets were
deserted, but the mad excitement indoors was as great as ever. The bar-
tenders were kept in incessant motion in their frantic efforts to supply the
demand for drinks which poured in from every direction. . . . The dance-house
was filled with half or wholly tipsy miners, with a sprinkling of abandoned
women, whose smiles and favors were as eagerly sought for and as jealously
observed by the unfavored as were ever those of the most gifted and virtuous
of their sex in the abode of wealth and refinement, at the East, on a gala night.
In the rear of every bar-room was a door bearing a sign inscribed "Club Room,"
through which was heard the strains of discordant music and the chinking of
coin.
Henry Eno, who went to the Treasure Hill mining camp of Hamilton during the summer of
1 869, wrote glowing accounts of the frenzied activity and extravagance associated with the
White Pine mining rush. In March, just before leaving Carson City, he wrote to a relative:
I have seen many persons from there [White Pine] & they all unite in saying
that it is almost fabulously rich in Silver ore & much of it worth from two to
fifteen thousand dollars per ton. Over two millions of dollars worth of bullion
have been shipped from there within the last three months. . . . The fact is
half the people here are more than half crazy & perhaps you will think I am
for the White Pine fever will take me off in six weeks time. . . . From present
indications I believe there will be twenty five or thirty thousand people in the
vicinity of White Pine this coming season. Of those some few will make
fortunes & many, very many, make failures.12
After arriving in Hamilton in July, Eno, wrote:
My first impressions are that this is the richest silver mining district discovered
since Columbus discovered America. . . . This is the very paradise for
speculators & adventurers, men who have some money & some sagacity.13
Later that summer Eno wrote:
I am camped at an elevation of eight thousand feet above sea level. Hamilton
where I am now writing contains about 2000 Inhabitants Treasure city a
thousand feet higher has perhaps 1500. Shermantown about as many. Then
there is Eberhart City, Swansey & I believe two or three others. Take Treasure
11. Albert S. Evans, "Up in the Po-go-nip," Overland Monthly, II (March 1869), 273-74.
12. Henry Eno to William Eno, March 2, 1869, printed in W. Turrentine Jackson, ed., Twenty Years On The
Pacific Slope: Letters of Henry Eno from California and Nevada, 1848-1871 (New Haven and London, Yale
University Press, 1965), pp. 176-78.
13. Ibid., June [July] 14, 1869, printed in Jackson, ed., Twenty Years On The Pacific Slope, pp. 180-81.
80
City for the center there are perhaps 8000 within three miles of it. I believe
almost as many more in the various mining districts within fifty miles. There are
about a dozen quartz mills within four or five miles, now running 155 Stamps
each stamp can crush one ton of ore a day it is impossible to say what is the
average yield of Silver to the ton. I put it at $50 to the ton but many think
more. Many tons yield from $1000 to even $10000 per ton. There is much of
what is called base or refractory ore here which cannot be successfully worked
without roasting in a furnace or smelting, and several smelting works are being
put up & I predict that in a few years there will be hundreds of smelting works
established Many very many handsome fortunes have been made here the
last year & many have lost. The principal fortunes have been made by those
who had money to start with. It is a Homopathic principle that like cures like
& here the like begets like. But still there are a good many instances where
poor laboring men have made what they call a lucky strike.14
Perhaps, one of the most comprehensive and balanced descriptions of the White Pine
mining rush is found in Statistics of Mines and Mining in the States and Territories West
of the Rocky Mountains by U.S. Commissioner of Mining Statistics Rossiter W. Raymond
in 1870. He observed:
Mining excitements, or "rushes" to newly-discovered localities, where rich
deposits are reported, have been too often and well described to need further
elaboration now. It is sufficient to know that the White Pine fever was one of
the most violent of these extraordinary epidemics ever experienced on the
Pacific coast. Like many others of its class, it was the fiercer and blinder the
farther one went from its cause . . . and although large numbers of prospectors
hastened to the new "diggings," it was with little hope or expectation that White
Pine would prove anything more or better than Reveille or Hot Creek. It is,
however, a matter of routine in a prospector's life to go to every new place that
is discovered; and if he gains nothing by it, he consoles himself by the reflection
that at least his education has been advanced to the extent of knowing that
there is nothing there. The unfortunate result of previous enterprises in districts
where rich ore had been found near the surface in limestone country rock added
to this chronic distrust, and several months elapsed before much confidence was
felt in the permanence of these rich deposits, bearing so striking and ominous
a resemblance to other discoveries, which had once promised much and
"petered" early. It was not until Nevada discovered that San Francisco had
also discovered White Pine, and that California capitalists were eagerly investing
money there, that the excitement grew feverish, and prospectors from every part
of the State rushed to the district which had already acquired the soubriquet
of the "poor man's paradise." Other and older districts were soon almost
depopulated; mines and mills were forced to stop for want of laborers; and
although the price of labor was not materially affected, it was only because both
employers and workmen tacitly understood that wages were already too high to
make mining generally profitable.15
By the summer of 1869, the White Pine mining district had ten stamp mills in operation,
and by the fall there were fifteen with six more under construction. At one time there were
twenty-three mills running simultaneously, the largest being the Stanford at Eberhardt with
thirty stamps. During 1869 the yield of thirty-four mines was $1,822,868 according to tax
14. jbid, August 8, 1869, printed in Jackson, ed., Twenty Years On The Pacific Slope, pp. 182-84.
15. Rossiter W. Raymond, Statistics of Mines and Mining in the States and Territories West of the Rocky
Mountains (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1870), p. 117.
81
records, while nearly 200 mines were producing profitable ore and more than 13,000 claims
had been staked.16 Later on March 28, 1874, the White Pine News would describe the
frenzy during this period of county history:
White Pine, at its birth, six years since, was a prodigy. The chloride ores of
the Hidden Treasure and the Eberhardt were unknown to the North American
continent, and had a parallel only in the Chanarcillo and kindred Chillian mines.
Their richness running into the thousands, and their docility extending nearly to
assay value, excited the greed or interest of all within hearing. These, together
with the misapprehension of their extent, caused by the profuse exhibition on
Chloride and Bromide Flats, inflamed the public to a degree unknown since the
birth of California. Electrified by the prospect of interminable wealth, multitudes
took their line of march for the new Mecca, and so great was the hegira, that,
indifferent to sickness or climate, within the first season some 10,000 or 12,000
men had established themselves in huts and caves 9,000 feet above the sea.
All locomotives were in requisition, from Shank's mare to the dashing coach,
and teams groaned under the burden of subsistence for the pilgrim army. In
the midst of the small-pox, with the thermometer at zero, a carnival of riot and
speculation was inaugurated. Mines, land, wood and water were claimed; towns
were built; lots rose to the thousands; and mining claims, good, bad or
indifferent, were bought and sold at unconscionable prices.17
The White Pine mining rush led to an orgy of speculation that, according to Nevada
historian Russell R. Elliott, "far exceeded any other in Nevada history." Between February
and April of 1869, capitalization of White Pine companies incorporated in California jumped
from $62,000,000 to $246,884,000, the latter representing some 170 firms. Both sums
were far beyond the real wealth of the mines. Actual working capital moved more slowly
into the new district, and, as early as 1870, California capitalists were becoming
disillusioned about the quality of the ore body. British capitalists, however, soon moved in
to take their place. The entrance of British capital into Nevada mining was part of a major
flow of investments from Great Britain to the United States in the post-Civil War era. It
was British capital which kept the White Pine Mining District alive into the early 1890s, long
after it was apparent that the rich ore was not to be found at depth.18
Although 1 870 is the year for which the official records show the largest production for the
district ($2,137,801), the easily found ores were nearly exhausted by that spring.
Production quickly tapered off during the 1870s with production in 1876 reaching only
$38,268. By 1872 the White Pine mines had produced nearly $7,000,000, but from that
time until 1890 mine production amounted to less than $6,000,000.19
Perhaps, the final word about the White Pine mining rush should come from the great
naturalist John Muir, who visited the area in the late 1870s and described its great waste.
He observed with some disdain:
16. "Mining Summary," Engineering and Mining Journal, IX (March 8, 1870), 148-49, and Nevada Bureau of
Mines and Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, p. 83. Further data on the White Pine mining rush may be found in
Jackson, Treasure Hill, pp. 12-33, and Nevada Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 57, Geology of the White Pine Mining
District, White Pine County, Nevada, by Fred L. Humphrey (Reno, University of Nevada, 1960).
17. White Pine News, March 28, 1874.
18. Elliott, History of Nevada, p. 104.
19. Elliott, "Early History of White Pine County," M.A. thesis, pp. 45-46.
82
Many of [the mines] do not represent any good accomplishment and have no
right to be. They are monuments of fraud and ignorance - sins against
science. The drifts and tunnels in the rocks may be regarded as the prayers
of the prospectors offered for the wealth he so earnestly craves; but like prayers
of any kind not in harmony with nature, they are unanswered.20
Despite the brevity of the White Pine mining rush, it had several important effects on the
future mining development in eastern Nevada. First, it focused the attention of the western
mining industry on eastern Nevada. Second, following the initial rush, a "backlash" effect
developed when new arrivals came to White Pine and found that the good ground had
been claimed and the area was overcrowded. As a result, the "prospecting mania" spread
throughout eastern Nevada and many new mining districts were established. Third, the
rush created an enlarged population center in eastern Nevada, composed of wholesale
and retail merchants, freight and stage line operators, ranchers and settlers, and laborers,
as well as a source of mining equipment and supplies much closer than either western
Nevada or Salt Lake City. Expanding mining activities could thus be conducted on a more
profitable basis in the previously accessible and isolated stretches of eastern Nevada.21
The spread of the "prospecting mania" engendered by the White Pine mining rush was
described in numerous contemporary accounts. On May 25, 1869, the Daily White Pine
News reported on this phenomenon:
The mountains are full of prospectors, in all directions, and scarcely a day
passes that we are not called on to announce some valuable discovery. It is
now a well-established fact that ore exists in paying quantities throughout almost
every part of the vast mineral belt which stretches away south from the railroad
to and beyond the Colorado river. Outsiders, who are envious of our prosperity,
may set up their puny whine about White Pine being a humbug; in-door
prospectors and "private" letter writers may say that there is nothing in the
country but spar and limestone, but for our part we would rather take our
chances along this great mineral belt than in any other portion of the world.
The eyes of the civilized world are turned toward the silver mines of Nevada,
and the "Great East" must necessarily furnish the field for future operations.
Who can estimate the population and wealth of Eastern Nevada ten years
hence?22
The spread of the White Pine mania was described further by Gibbes and Evans in their
Map of the White Pine Silver District, Nevada, With the Surrounding Country. . . . With A
Description From the "Alta California" in 1869. They noted:
All through the White Pine District new discoveries, of greater or less
importance, are being made daily, and at Duckwater, forty miles southeast; at
the new Sierra District, sixty-five miles south; at Eureka, forty miles west - all
around, in fact, new discoveries are being made. Stretching from the northern
line of Idaho to the Nevada line on the south, is a broad belt of metalliferous
20. Quoted in Elliott, History of Nevada, p. 105.
21. Bourne, "Early Mining in Southwestern Utah and Southeastern Nevada." pp. 88-89.
22. Daily White Pine News, May 25, 1869.
83
country as yet but partially explored or wholly untouched. All this will be hunted
over next year by prospectors stimulated by the White Pine discoveries.23
The widening ripple effect of the White Pine mining rush was also described in a letter
written by E.L. Davis, Nevada Surveyor-General, to James L. Wilson, Commissioner of the
General Land Office, on August 10, 1869. Davis observed:
The fame of White Pine grew rapidly under the increased facilities of the
railroad. Prospectors spread over the county adjacent and remote, and within
a brief period no less than 15 mineral districts were discovered and organized.
These districts extend 250 miles south of the Central Pacific Railroad into Utah
Territory on the east, and to the line of Idaho on the north. In all these various
mining districts nearly every acre of timber grew. Agricultural and saline lands
situated in the mountain ranges or the subjacent valleys is claimed and held
by possessory title. What preparation of the mining property situated in the
numerous districts in the State will prove valuable remains to be demonstrated.
The Central Pacific Railroad which was completed in May last, will be of
incalculable importance in promoting the best interests of the State. In its
course of upwards of 450 miles through or bordering upon extensive mineral
regions and agricultural tracts it has imported energy and life where before was
languor and solitude. Already its line is dotted with towns and settlements. It
is generally believed that this grand advance will be the means of rendering the
business of mining profitable in the central and eastern parts of the State.24
The effects of the White Pine mining rush "backlash" were felt throughout eastern Nevada.
During the early 1870s there would be flurries of activity in nearly forty mining districts
throughout the area. The "backlash" was accelerated by the rapid decline of production in
the White Pine district during these years. To the east and southeast of Treasure Hill new
districts would be established in the Snake Range in the area of present-day Great Basin
National Park.25
The historical development of the White Pine Mining District set the pattern for the other
districts in the county. While each district had its own distinctive history, each one had a
similar story. After the ore discovery, a district would be established, a town or camp
would be built, and mines and mills would spring up in the center of activity. As soon as
the mines were exhausted, the people would disappear, leaving ruins, deserted mines and
camps, and deteriorated mining equipment and related debris.
23. Map of the White Pine Silver District, Nevada, With the Surrounding Country, By Chas. Drayton Gibbes,
With A Description From the "Alta California," By Albert S. Evans (San Francisco, Warren Holt, 1869), pp. 15-16.
24. E.L. Davis, Surveyor-General Nevada, to James L Wilson, Commissioner, General Land Office, August
10, 1869, Nevada Office of the Surveyor General, Reno, Copies of Letters Sent ("Letter Book 'A'"), 1861-1869,
Box 1 , Series 1 , Record Group 49, Records of the Bureau of Land Management, National Archives and Records
Administration, San Francisco Branch, San Bruno, California.
25. Bourne, "Early Mining in Southwestern Utah and Southeastern Nevada," pp. 89-92; "Nevada," Annual
Mining Review and Stock Ledger, July 1876, 20; and John J. Powell, Nevada: The Land of Silver (San Francisco,
Bacon & Company, 1876), pp. 140-41.
26. Elliott, "Early History of White Pine County," Pacific Northwest Quarterly, 157.
84
SNAKE (BONITA) MINING DISTRICT
Location
The Snake or Bonita Mining District includes the drainage areas of Snake and Baker creeks
on the east slope of the Snake Range. The exact location of the original Snake, or Snake
Mountain, district established in 1869 is not known, but the Snake Valley district established
in 1873 was "on the eastern slope of Jeff Davis Mountain, the eastern boundary of the
district being the State line." The area was renamed the Bonita district just before to World
War I for Camp Bonita on Snake Creek.27
History
The earliest discoveries in the area were specimens of silver ore in February 1869 at which
time the Snake or Snake Mountain Mining District was organized. Early records of the
district all attest to little mining activity. On April 30, 1869, the Daily White Pine News
reported that Judge Robardson had just returned to Treasure City from an extensive
prospecting tour of eastern Nevada, including the Snake district. While pleased with much
of the rock shown him from the district, the judge could not "speak advisedly as to the
extent and permanency of any of the mines, as a sufficient amount of labor" had "not yet
been expended to enable any one to form a reliable opinion touching this subject."28 Later
on Christmas Day that year the newspaper observed that the Snake district "has been but
little prospected." The ore was found to be "low grade and in slate formation."29 In his
report for 1869 and 1870 the Nevada state mineralogist made the following observations
about the district:
It is twelve miles east from Sacramento District on the eastern slope of the
mountain. The country rock is granite. Specimens of ore have been found
which assay finely, but there is not sufficient encouragement to justify the
expenditure of much capital or labor in development.30
In his Statistics of Mines and Mining in the States and Territories West of the Rocky
Mountains, U.S. Commissioner of Mining Statistics Rossiter W. Raymond wrote in 1870:
The district [Snake Mountain] is well wooded and watered. The mines carry
rich sulphurets of silver and are distant sixty-five miles from Fillmore City, Utah,
where provisions can be bought cheap.31
Despite the promising prospects of the district, little mining activity was undertaken for some
forty years. In 1873 a few locations were made and the Snake Mountain Mining District
was organized, but there is no record of production. The following year the Nevada state
27. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, p. 77, and Francis Church Lincoln, Mining
Districts and Mineral Resources of Nevada (Reno, Nevada Newsletter Publishing Company, 1923), p. 255.
28. Daily White Pine News, April 30, 1869.
29. ]bid., December 25, 1869.
30. Report of the Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1869 and 1870 (Carson City, Charles
L. Perkins, State Printer, 1871), p. 84.
31. Raymond, Statistics of Mines and Mining in the States and Territories West of the Rocky Mountains,
1870, p. 180.
85
mineralogist reported that the district was "either abandoned" or had insufficient activity
"worthy of mention."32
Despite the relative inactivity of mining in the Snake district during the period from 1874 to
1912 lone prospectors periodically entered the area in search of mineral wealth. One such
individual was Peter Dieshman who built a cabin in upper Baker Creek Canyon about one
mile below the lake around the turn of the century. He reportedly spent many years in the
area prospecting, but little is known about his background or activities.33
Another prospector to enter the Snake Mining District during the early 1900s was Alfred
Johnson. On October 29, 1909, he filed an application for a water rights permit in Snake
Creek Canyon for mining and power purposes. The application, however, was protested
by George W. Gonder, an area rancher at Garrison, on December 1, 1909, and the matter
became embroiled in litigation for an extended period.34 In later years Johnson would
develop the tungsten mine above Johnson Lake at the head of Snake Creek Canyon.
Little mining activity occurred in the Snake district until 1912. That year scheelite-bearing
veins along Snake Creek were discovered by John D. Tilford, and operations were
commenced by Tilford and others. The Tilford or Bonita Mine and nearby Camp Bonita
were soon established and the district became known as Bonita. By December 1912 the
Mining and Scientific Press reported:
At the claims of J.D. Tilford and others on Snake Creek, near Baker . . . about
50 tons of tungsten ore is on the dump, worth from 15 to 60% tungstic acid.
A 42-in. vein has been opened in two shafts and an adit. The ore will be hand
sorted to bring the average to 40%, which will return $4 per unit at Newhouse,
Utah. In the spring a small mill with concentrating tables may be built.35
Active operation of the Bonita Mine was continued in 1913 as there was a growing need
for tungsten in the manufacture of munitions and as an alloy of steel. In March Tilford
reported that the vein had been prospected for 800 feet. The ore vein was up to three feet
in width and averaged 25 percent tungstic acid. The first shipments from the mine would
be made that spring.36
Several months later in July Tilford arranged for installation of an "experimental" 2-stamp
mill, having a capacity of two tons each 24 hours, with concentrating tables along Snake
32. Biennial Report of the State Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1873 and 1874, p. 89, in
Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 7th Session, and Nevada Bureau of Mines and
Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, p. 77.
33. Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National Park" Part II, pp. 635-36.
34. Biennial Report of the State Engineer, 1909-1910, pp. 67, 79, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and
Assembly, State of Nevada, 1911, 25th Session, Vol. 2.
35. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CV (December 21,
1912), 810.
36. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CVI (March 1, 1913),
358.
86
Creek. At the time it was noted that ore on the dumps at the Bonita Mine "should produce
two carloads of concentrate."37
Little work was done at the Bonita Mine in 1914, but the rising price of tungsten as a result
of World War I demands led to increasing activity in 1915 and 1916. During the summer
of 1915 Tilford bonded and leased his property to Atkins, Kroll & Co., a San Francisco firm
that erected a 20-ton mill and "worked it until the water for steam and milling operations
froze." In March 1916 the firm relinquished its bond and lease, "owing to disagreements
and the meddling of the owner." By August it was reported that the Tilford brothers were
"running their two-stamp mill" on Snake Creek and selling their product to the United States
Tungsten Corporation works at the Hub Mine on the west side of the Snake Range. The
following month mining reports indicated that the Bonita group was "producing scheelite,"
the mill was "working steadily," and prospecting was "active." Some ore from the
Richardson and Poppish mines some miles away was being processed at the mill.38
Little activity occurred at the Bonita Mine between 1916 and the early 1940s, when World
War II demands led to rising prices for tungsten and scheelite. During the early 1940s the
floor of Snake Creek Canyon in the vicinity of the Bonita Mine was explored for "placer
scheelite." Forty-four pits and shafts as deep as 25 feet were sunk to water level in the
alluvium without encountering bedrock. An area 1 ,200 feet long and 200 to 400 feet wide
was examined and yielded samples averaging 2.8 pounds tungstic trioxide per ton. About
five units of scheelite were recovered from 110 yards of treated gravel, the scheelite
ranging in size from ten mesh to nuggets weighing ten pounds.39
Beside the Bonita Mine there were other tungsten deposits higher up Snake Creek that first
became productive in 1916. Two years later the Uvada Tungsten Company began
operating the Pilot Knob group of claims and a 20-stamp mill at the head of Snake Creek.
This group and mill probably constituted the early workings of what has become known as
the Johnson Mine and Mill near Johnson Lake.
The Johnson tungsten mine above Johnson Lake, several hundred feet below the crest of
the Snake Range, was worked sporadically on a small scale for many years. In August
1920, for instance, the Engineering and Mining Journal reported that a 1,200-foot tunnel
had "been driven on the lead-silver property of Dearden & Johnson near the head of Snake
Creek." The vein was reportedly eighteen inches wide and said "to carry high values."
The ore was milled in a two-ton gravity concentration plant in the canyon about one mile
below Johnson Lake. Because of the rugged terrain the ore from the mine was transported
in large drums via an overhead cable to the shore of Johnson Lake from which it was
37. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CVII (July 26, 1913),
163, and U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1913, Part I - Metals
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1914), p. 356.
38. "Tungsten in 1915," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (January 29, 1916), 188; "The Mining Summary-
Nevada-White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (January 29, 1916), 183; "Review of Mining-Ely,
Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (April 1, 1916), 485; "The Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine
County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXIII (August 12, 1916), 253; and "The Mining Summary - Nevada - White
Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXIII (September 23, 1916), 475.
39. U.S. Bureau of Mines, "Mineral Investigation of the Wheeler Peak Roadless Area, White Pine County,
Nevada," MLA 56-83, by Steven E. Kluender, 1983, p. 10, and Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin
85, Part II, p. 77.
40. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, p. 77.
87
taken to the mill by mule. The concentrates were then shipped to Frisco, Utah, for export
by rail.41
Little documentation concerning mining activity at the Johnson Mine could be found after
1920. In 1935, however, it was reported that J.S. Dearden of Baker "shipped a small
quantity of scheelite" from the east side of the Snake Mountains. This activity was
centered in the aforementioned Johnson Mine. Some time thereafter a major snowslide at
Johnson Lake reportedly caused severe damage to the mining operation, thus shutting it
down.42
During 1958 the U.S. Bureau of Mines surveyed the inactive Johnson Mine. The bureau's
mining engineers observed:
Johnson Lake Tungsten mine located in projected sec. 35, T. 13 N., R. 68 E.
at the head of Snake Creek is developed by two short drifts and surface cuts.
. . . Veins at the Johnson Lake area are small, difficult to work and are of little
mineral value.43
Meanwhile, some minor mining activity was occurring in Young Canyon. In 1929, for
instance, lead ore was shipped from the Poljack claim. Seven tons of ore yielded 6,119
pounds of lead, 148 pounds of copper, and 73 ounces of silver, valued at $450/"
Ten years later, in September 1939, Peter Bremer located the Jack Pot Claim in Young
Canyon. He performed a small amount of work in prospecting for gold. After his death the
ground was relocated in July 1958 by a Mr. Poljack, who conducted assessment work.
Later in 1963 the U.S. Bureau of Mines found that the Poljack property consisted of two
unpatented claims, known as the Wolframite No. 1 and No. 2, with development openings
comprising "a shallow adit 25 feet in length and a 20 foot cut" which were "500 feet
apart."45
Figures for total production from the Snake Mining District are not available.
41. "News By Mining Districts - Nevada - Snake Range," Engineering and Mining Journal, CX (August 21,
1920), 381. Also see Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National Park," Part II, p. 668.
42. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1935 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1935), p. 495,
and Michael R. Kelsey, Hiking and Climbing in the Great Basin National Park (Provo, Kelsey Publishing, 1988), pp.
78-81.
43. "Report on the Investigations of Mineralization In and Adjacent to the Humboldt National Forest, Mt.
Wheeler Area, White Pine County, Nevada," by Henry W. Jones, Mining Engineer, Bureau of Mines, November
5, 1958, pp. 4, 6-8, in U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Region Four, "Field Investigation
Report, Lehman Caves - Wheeler Peak, October 13 to 17, 1958, October 29 to November 13, 1958, Portion of
Southern Section of Snake Range, White Pine County, Nevada," February 1959. The investigation found all mines
in the Snake district to be inactive.
44. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, p. 77, and U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral
Resources of the United States, 1929, Part I - Metals, (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1932), p. 673.
45. "Poljack," USBM Unpublished Data, 1963, File No. 341, Tungsten Mining District, Nevada Mining District
Collection, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
88
SHOSHONE (MINERVA, LEXINGTON, TUNGSTEN) MINING DISTRICT
Location
The Shoshone Mining District, on the west slope of the Snake Range, is better known in
recent years as the Minerva district, but it has also been referred to as the Tungsten
district. During the early mining period the eastern portion of the district was organized as
the Lexington district. It includes T. 11 N., R. 68 E., and extends from the site of the old
Shoshone post office in the northwest corner to Silver Chief Canyon near the south side.46
History
Silver chloride was identified in the Indian vein on a low spur of Mineral Hill on March 13,
1869, when an Indian led some miners to the outcrop of what is now the eastern part of
the Scheelite Chief Mine. Ten claims were staked that day, and the Shoshone district was
organized. On April 30, 1869, the Daily White Pine News reported that Judge Robardson
had just returned to Treasure City after an extensive prospecting tour of eastern Nevada
including the Shoshone district. While the judge was impressed with much of the rock
shown him from the district, he could not "speak advisedly as to the extent and
permanency of any of the mines, as a sufficient amount of labor" had "not yet been
expended to enable any one to form a reliable opinion touching this subject.47
The Nevada state mineralogist reported at length on the Shoshone district in 1870. He
stated:
This district joins Lincoln on the south and has all the same natural facilities
for mining. The mines ... are situated on a low spur of the mountain called
Mineral Hill. Another spur further north called Lookout Mountain has a number
of mines. East of these hills is a canon, at the head of which a saddle
connects the hills with the main mountain. This saddle rises into another ridge
known as the Hotchkiss Hill. North of this there is a wide canon in which a
village is surveyed. North of this canon there is a bench or level place on the
top of a hill known as Bromide Flat, where there are mines. Nearly the whole
space described is covered with nut pine and mountain mahogany. To the east,
the mountain rises very high, probably ten thousand feet, and is capped with
limestone.
The report elaborated on the work in the district:
Located March 13th, 1869; width, three and half feet; dip, north 30: course
east. An incline follows the vein to the depth of twenty-two feet; near the
bottom of the incline the vein is broken; the country rock is limestone; the ore
is a chloride of silver, and selected, assays from $62 to $247 per ton.
The Quandary and White Cloud, located March 13th, 1869. The former is two
hundred feet south of the Indian and producing the same quality of ore. Its
course is northeast; width five feet. The White Cloud is a thousand feet north
46. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, p. 76, and Church, Mining Districts and Mineral
Resources of Nevada, pp. 254-55.
47. Daily White Pine News, April 30, 1869.
89
of the Indian; it is about eight feet wide; course, east; dip, north 30°; the ore
selected assays $223 per ton and shows some gold; the north wall is smooth.
The Treasure, on Last Chance Hill east of Mineral Hill, located March 13th,
1869; one thousand feet claimed; vein matter five feet wide and crops through
a distance of five hundred feet.
There are several other claims of a similar character in Last Chance Hill. The
Plutarch, Grasshopper, Plinney - all located March 16th and 17th, 1869, on
Hotchkiss Hill. Course east; the width is undetermined. The vein matter is
extensive. The ore assays selected $125 per ton. The Country rock is
limestone. The Yellow Jacket, North America, Rainy Day, Archey, Ike Cook,
South America, and other claims, located in March and April on Bromide Flat,
have the same general character. The course is northeast; width of vein matter
five feet. Country rock, limestone. The ore yields from $97 to $204 per ton,
when properly selected.
A great many claims are located, but little work has been done. The ore is
found in bunches and seams. It is a rich chloride. Its extent can only be
determined by developments.48
Despite the promising prospects of the district, work had largely come to a halt by 1873-
74. The Engineering and Mining Journal reported in January 1 874 that the "old district of
Shoshone" was "in a great measure dead" but promised "to revive at some future time."
That same year the state mineralogist observed that the mines in the Lexington district,
which had been carved out of the eastern part of the Shoshone district, were either
abandoned or had insufficient work being done in them to be "worthy of mention."49
About the time that these reports were being published, however, there was renewed
activity in the Shoshone district. In January 1874, for instance, the Mining and Scientific
Press printed an article from the White Pine News describing a recent discovery on the
Indian Queen claim. The article stated:
The general appearance of the ore is very encouraging, being sulphurets of
silver contained in pure quartz, and will assay into the thousands. The ledge
is represented as extending a distance of a mile and a half, showing rich
cropping all the way. An incline has been sunk at one point to the depth of
forty-five feet, all the way in ore. Shoshone district was discovered some years
ago and many locations made there, but its great distance from communication
has rendered its development slow, consequently leaving it, like many other
valuable properties, almost unknown. Now by means of Travis & Co.'s stage
line to Pioche, the distance to the mines has been very materially shortened,
as, leaving the stage road at Patterson's, one hundred miles south from here,
only twenty-five miles has to be accomplished to the locality, which can easily
be done on horseback.
The White Pine News item went on to say:
48. Report of the Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1869 and 1870, pp. 96-97. Also see
White Pine News, March 25, 1870.
49. "Mining in Nevada during 1873," Engineering and Mining Journal, XVII (January 24, 1874), 57-58, and
Biennial Report of the State Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1873 and 1874, p. 89, in Appendix
to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 7th Session.
90
We are glad to note a renewal of interest in this section of country, as, should
active operations be commenced there, other and more important mining
interests will be opened to capitalists in the immediate vicinity. . . . Undoubtedly
a rich country lies south of us which only needs the necessary adjuncts of
wealth and labor to open them to speculators.50
Mining activity in the Shoshone district, however, quickly declined. A Salt Lake City
company purchased "a number of the principal locations and made some developments
afterwards," but no "profitable results" were obtained. While the Indian Queen "showed
some good ore," there was an insufficient "amount found to warrant any great expense in
extracting the same."51
Mining activity in the Shoshone district lay dormant until 1885 with the exception of minor
location and assessment work.52 On September 12, 1885, the White Pine News reported
that the district, which had become known as Minerva,
bids fair in the near future to become the most important bullion producing
district in the county. The ledges are numerous and large: some of them
being 15 to 25 feet wide, and traceable on the surface for the full length of
the claims (1500 feet), and the ore is generally of a high grade. The Mammoth
ledge, owned by Mooney & Hudson, has a shaft down to a depth of 45 feet,
and from the surface to the bottom of the shaft there is a continuous body of
ore, 5 feet wide, that gives average assays of 80 ounces per ton of silver. The
Blue Belle, owned by the same gentlemen, carries the same character of ore
and in large quantities. Both wood and water are abundant in the district.53
After several years of little mining activity the district, which was again referred to as
Shoshone, revived in 1890. In that year the Nevada Surveyor-General described the new
work at Shoshone:
This little camp, situated about twenty miles south of Osceola, White Pine
county, in the Snake range of mountains, has a number of silver-bearing ledges
that will, it is predicted, soon astonish even the old timers by their product.
From a few samples of rock thrown out during the last assessment work several
assays were made showing from 200 to 300 ounces in silver to the ton. There
is a plentiful supply of work and water convenient, sufficient for all mining
purposes of the district. A small force of men are now at work, taking out ore
to ship to Salt Lake City for reduction.54
50. "Shoshone District," Mining and Scientific Press, XXVIII (January 10, 1874), 27.
51. Biennial Report of the State Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1875 and 1876, p. 171,
in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 8th Session, Vol. I.
52. See, for instance, "Notice of Locations in Shoshone Mining District for 1882" in a volume entitled,
"Shoshone Mining District, Filed Aug. 5th, 1882," at the Nevada Historical Society, Reno.
53. White Pine News, September 12, 1885.
54. Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register of the State of Nevada For the Years 1889 and
1890, p. 165, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1891, 15th Session. The
Shoshone post office was established on May 8, 1896, at the Swallow Ranch. Helen S. Carlson, Nevada Place
Names (Reno, University of Nevada Press, 1974), p. 214.
91
With the exception of minor assessment and examination work little mining activity occurred
in the district, which again became known as Minerva by the early 1900s, between 1890
and 1915. In December 1901 the White Pine News reported that James H. Marriott and
Orson Hudson were conducting assessment work in the district. Several years later, in
April 1905, J. Kelly was reported to be examining property in the district, and in April 1907
Jasper M. Fox and Clayton Fox were working in the area with "good showings.
Scheelite was discovered in quartz veins in the district during late 1915 by C.T. and A.G.
Millick and Jasper M. Fox.56 On April 1, 1916, the Mining and Scientific Press reported:
In the old Minerva district, 30 years ago work was done on several low-grade
silver veins, which were abandoned. This was located late last fall by rancher
Hudson as a silver property. Millick brothers and Jappy Fox found scheelite in
the dumps, and a 5 to 6 ft. vein was opened in several places, containing 1%
scheelite, with bunches of high-grade ore. They jumped Hudson's location,
claiming that it was not properly staked, later agreeing to pay him $10,000 when
sold. W. Stewart recently sold the property to Salt Lake City and Boston
people. A payment of $3000 cash was made (which is 1% of the total price)
over a period of 5 years, with a 20% royalty applying to the purchase price.
These people say that they will install a mill in the near future. In four days two
of the Millick brothers recently panned 265 lb. of concentrate from old dumps
that assay 60%, worth about $600.57
Further efforts were conducted to develop the extensive tungsten deposits of the Minerva
district in 1916. The Nevada Scheelite Company was incorporated in Salt Lake City that
spring to develop twenty claims under bond and lease from the Millicks and Fox for
$300,000 and five other claims held by location. The company established a camp called
Minerva, and by late April had fifteen men at work on the property.58
The Minerva district, according to the Mining and Scientific Press of May 20, 1916, was
"apparently one of the best" tungsten deposits that had been opened in White Pine County.
The veins were "intrusions in limestone," and the "ore a pearl-gray scheelite." The
Scheelite Chief claim, just above the newly-established camp, was "one of the best
developments along the range" and was "of bonanza quality." Years before it had been
worked for silver, but was abandoned without the presence of tungsten ore being detected.
The vein showed a continuous outcrop of 1 ,200 feet. At the main workings the ore-shoot
had "been proved for 80 ft., averaging 9 ft. in width, from which four cross-section
samplings showed an average at surface of 2.85% tungstic acid." The owners were mining
and sacking ore "from a high-grade streak 2-1/2 to 3 ft. wide" that would "yield 15%."
Some of the selected ore contained up to fifty percent.
The Oriole vein, paralleling the Scheelite Chief about 1,500 feet to the north, could be
traced some 3,500 feet and was producing "some fine ore." The vein varied from one to
nine feet in width, and "samples along 70 ft., for an average width of 7 ft." showed "an
average of 1.91% tungstic acid." Some "high-grade shoots" had been cut, and a large
quantity of ore was being sacked.
55. White Pine News, December 5, 1901, April 6, 1905, April 24, 1907, and September 26, 1907.
56. "Review of Mining - Ely, Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, CXI (December 25, 1915), 983.
57. "Review of Mining - Ely, Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (April 1, 1916), 485.
58. "The Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (May 6, 1916),
685.
92
One of the other veins of the group was the Everett at the north end of the property. Its
outcropping was prominent and could be traced for some 4,500 feet. Samples "in a 65-
ft. shaft, across 5-1/2 ft. of ore" gave "1.12%, and a 12-ft. sample, 50 ft. west of the shaft,
gave 3.60%." A small shoot paralleling the main vein was "practically all high-grade ore,"
and five sacks taken from the vein "and hand panned yielded 200 lb. of 64% concentrate."
There were also other scheelite claims in the vicinity. Arnold Millick, W.S. Elliott, J.
Briggane and others had "a good group of claims north of Minerva" on which development
was underway "on veins from 4 to 10 ft. wide." Clyde Tilford, Sheriff Crain, T. Barton, and
D. Millick also had "some promising claims in this neighborhood" on which development
was "in progress with good results.
The Nevada Scheelite Company installed a small plant for sampling purposes. It engaged
in mining operations during the summer, selling some tungsten on the open market and
some to the United States Tungsten Corporation at the Hub Mine.60
The extensive mining operations at Minerva brought a continuing stream of miners to the
area. By the summer of 1916 there was a force of 200 men in the camp, which quickly
became a small tent city. The manager of the boarding house was Josie Pearl, a colorful
woman who was once dubbed "Queen of the Black Rock Country." One writer described
her in rather querulous terms:
Her dress was calico with an apron over it. On her head was a farmer's straw
hat, on her feet a pair of mismatched men's shoes, and on her left hand and
wrist $6,000 worth of diamonds. This was Josie, contradiction all over and a
sort of "Tugboat Annie" of the desert. Her whole life had been spent hunting
for gold in the ground. She was a prospector. She had been at it since she
was nine, playing a man's part in a man's game.61
The Minerva Tungsten Corporation was incorporated in Nevada in 1918 to develop
seventeen tungsten claims covering 340 acres in the Minerva district. The firm was
capitalized at $350,000 and had offices in Los Angeles, California, and Pioche, Nevada.
The scheelite ore on the claims occurred "in a quartz vein in limestone dipping 55° with
E.W. course and 9 to 50' wide." The shoots were up to 750 feet long, and the ore carried
1 to 40 percent tungstic acid as scheelite. Ten tons of 70 percent concentrate were
produced from "test runs" during 1918.
By 1919 development by the Minerva Tungsten Corporation included a 100-foot vertical
shaft, two tunnels of 200 and 350 feet at a depth of 150 feet, and total workings of 3,000
feet. Ore that was blocked out amounted to 25,000 tons with a total of 100,000 tons
probable. Equipment on the site included gas engines, a compressor, drills, a 3-1/2-mile
pipeline for water, and a 150-ton gravity concentrating mill below the Scheelite Chief Mine.
59. "Review of Mining - Ely, Nevada, " Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (May 20, 1916), 762.
60. "The Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (June 24, 1916),
958.
61. Effie O. Read, White Pine Lang Syne: A True History of White Pine County, Nevada (Denver, Big
Mountain Press, 1965), p. 186.
93
Pending an improvement in the tungsten market, however, operations were confined to
development and experimental work at the mill.62
By 1923 the mill had closed and been dismantled, most of the machinery being shipped
to the Comet Mine at Pioche. With the exception of a small-scale leasing operation in
1932 and a small shipment of low-grade silver-gold ore in 1934, the property at Minerva
remained idle until 1936.
In September of that year the Tungsten Metals Corporation of Ely reopened the scheelite
mines and a 75-ton diesel-powered gravity and flotation mill in the district. The chief mines
operated by the corporation included the Scheelite Chief, Oriole, West Everitt, East Everitt,
and Silver Bell. During the next three years some 75,000 tons of ore were mined,
producing more than 600 tons of 70 percent tungsten concentrate while employing a force
of some 40 men. By late 1939 the corporation was second to the Nevada-Massachusetts
Company in tungsten production in the state. Production reached its peak in 1940 when
nearly $1,200,000 worth of tungsten was mined. By that year the district had produced a
total of some $1,750,000, most of which came between 1937 and 1940 as a result of the
operations of the Tungsten Metals Corporation.63
The U.S Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey, developed the
property of the Tungsten Metals Corporation during 1940-41 and 1943. The property
consisted of seven patented and some forty unpatented claims on the southern portion of
the tungsten-bearing veins at Minerva. The work consisted of surface trenching and
diamond drilling from November 1940 to June 1941 and from August to December in 1943.
The purpose of the project, as authorized by the Strategic Materials Act, was to determine
possible reserves of tungsten in the downward extension and lateral eastern extension of
three major tungsten-bearing quartz veins. Development during 1940-41 consisted of
surface trenching, sampling, ad diamond drilling 37 holes for a total of 6,959 feet.
Subsequent drilling of eight holes, totaling 3,067 feet, in 1943 disclosed additional reserves.
The Minerva mill, which had been enlarged to 150-ton capacity in 1940, was operated with
power supplied by two 1 80-horsepower diesel engines direct-connected to 440-volt, 100-
kv., alternating current generators. The mill was considered to be one of the finest of its
kind in the United States at that time. Mill recovery was estimated to be 80 percent on
normal mill lead containing 1 percent tungstic trioxide with concentrates containing 64 to 70
percent tungstic trioxide.
Living quarters were provided for some 45 company employees at the Minerva camp by
1943. One large bunkhouse and several small houses were available for single men, and
other small houses were rented to married men for a nominal sum. A company mess hall
was operated by a contractor who supplied board to the men at $1.50 per day. The
employees had the use of a bathhouse with showers, toilets, laundry room, and reading
62. Walter Harvey Weed, International Edition, The Mines Handbook (New York City, W.H. Weed, 1920), p.
1,070, and Office of George W. Malone, United States Senate, Nevada, "Resources Report, White Pine County,
Nevada, 1958," p. 142.
63. "News of the Industry - Nevada," Engineering and Mining Journal, CXL (November, 1939), 68, and Nevada
State Bureau of Mines, Geology and Mining Series No. 38, Nevada's Metal and Mineral Production (1859-1940,
Inclusive), by Bertrand F. Couch and Jay A. Carpenter, University of Nevada Bulletin, XXXVII (November 1, 1943),
143, 148, 151. Paul J. Sirkegian, chief geologist for the Consolidated Copper Mines Corporation at Kimberly, was
president and manager of Tungsten Metals, and W.L. Trent was mill superintendent.
94
room. All employees worked a seven-day week, the miners and mill operators being paid
$7.51 per day and muckers and mill helpers $6.97 per day.64
During the years 1941-45 the Tungsten Metals Corporation continued to operate the
Scheelite Chief, Oriole, Everitt, and Silver Bell mines. Each year the U.S. Bureau of Mines
Mineral Yearbook rated these mines as among the smaller but nevertheless important
producers of primary tungsten concentrates in Nevada. Near the end of World War II, on
May 31, 1945, the four mines were closed, and the mine and mill equipment removed.
Thus, between 1936 and 1945 the Tungsten Metals Corporation's mines produced more
than 110,000 tons of ore, or 83,000 units of tungstic trioxide, valued at more than
$1 .500.000.65
A study of tungsten deposits in the Minerva district by Dwight M. Lemmon of the U.S.
Geological Survey in February 1944 indicates that two other companies were operating in
the district during World War II. The Calico Tungsten Company, a partnership between
Hadley R. Bramel and Stanley Feitler, was working three unpatented claims on a single
vein - the Canary Yellow, Calico, and Zigzag claims. With the exception of surface cuts,
work was concentrated at the Canary Yellow Mine.
The Shoshone Mining Company, a partnership among A.J. O'Connell, W.L Trent, J.E.
Brinton, and Horace Bath, possessed the Hilltop group of six unpatented claims known as
the Hilltop, Tony, Tony No. 1 , Tony No. 2, Tony No. 3, and Tony No. 4. The claims were
worked by the New Deal Leasing Company in 1940-41, the Scheelite Leasing .Company in
1941, and the Virdot Development Company in 1942. The Tony prospect was operated by
the Tungsten Metals Corporation for a short period in 1940-41. Most of the production up
to 1944 had come from the Hilltop Mine, which yielded at least 2,106 units of tungstic
trioxide.66
In 1947 the property at Minerva was acquired by the Minerva Scheelite Mining Company,
a family-operated firm owned by Robert Stopper, Edward Stopper, and Dr. Martha Allen.
Robert Stopper, a Stanford mining graduate formerly employed by the U.S. Geological
64. U.S. Bureau of Mines, "Investigation of Tungsten Metals Corp. Deposits (Minerva Mining District), White
Pine County, Nev., Report of Investigations 4648," by E.W. Newman, Robert W. Geehan, and Russell R. Trengove,
March 1950, pp. 1-12.
65. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1941 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1943), pp. 648-
49; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1942 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1943), p. 679; U.S.
Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1943 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1945), p. 677; U.S. Bureau
of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1944 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1946), p. 659; and U.S. Bureau of
Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1945 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1947), p. 667.
66. U.S. Geological Survey, "Tungsten Deposits in the Minerva District, White Pine County, Nevada," by
Dwight M. Lemmon, February 1944, pp. 14-16, File No. 332, Minerva Mining District, Nevada Mining District
Collection, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
95
Survey, managed the property. Under his direction the Scheelite Chief Mine was
rehabilitated and a new 35-ton gravity concentrating mill was constructed to treat the ore.67
The following year the Minerva Scheelite Mining Company, and its successor the M.I. A.
Company, received a loan of $128,550 from the Defense Minerals Exploration
Administration (DMEA) to explore the Canary Yellow and Minerva mines. The M.I.A.
Company was a joint venture of the American Zinc, Lead and Smelting Company and the
Combined Metals Reduction Company, the latter having obtained a 25-year lease from
Robert Stopper on about 90 percent of the Minerva Scheelite property in 1952. The
Canary Yellow Mine and its associated 15-ton gravity mill produced an unspecified amount
of tungsten concentrates in 1953.68
Considerable mining activity was conducted in the Minerva district during 1954. Kerr and
Jeppson mined 1,184 tons of tungsten ore, averaging 1 percent tungstic trioxide, from the
Canary Yellow Mine, the ore being shipped to a custom mill. The M.I.A. Company
continued to explore the Minerva Mine under a DMEA contract by advancing several levels,
the ore being shipped to a Utah treatment plant. The Minerva Scheelite Mining Company
continued development of the Scheelite Chief Mine and treated development and custom
ore in its company mill. Tungsten tailings from various sources in the district were also
treated at the mill.69
In 1955 the Minerva Mine yielded most of the tungsten produced in White Pine County.
Nearly 10,000 short-ton units of tungstic trioxide were mined by the Minerva Scheelite
Mining Company.70
The following year the Minerva district produced some 6,400 short-ton units of tungstic
trioxide, comprising most of the county's tungsten production. The principal producers were
the Everitt Mine operated by Minerva Scheelite and the Minerva Mine worked by M.I.A.
Mines, which continued exploration for tungsten ore under the DMEA program. Ore from
both mines was concentrated at the Minerva Scheelite mill.71
The U.S. Government discontinued the purchase of tungsten in 1957, thus hastening the
end of active mining in the Minerva district. Although the Everitt and Hill Top mines and
the Minerva Scheelite mill were active that year, no shipments were made.72 In September
1958 the Minerva mill was destroyed by fire, and, with the declining market for tungsten,
67. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1948 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1948), p. 1,
254; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1949 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1949, p. 1, 238; U.S.
Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1950 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1950, p. 1, 250; U.S. Bureau
of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, Area Reports, Volume III, 1952 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1952), p.
590; and Office of George W. Malone, United States Senate, Nevada, "Resources Report, White Pine County,
Nevada, 1958," pp. 142-43.
68. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, Area Reports, Volume III, 1953 (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1953), pp. 634, 674.
69. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1954, Volume III, Area Reports (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1955), p. 707.
70. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1955, Volume 3, Area Reports (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1956), p. 715.
71. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1956, Volume III, Area Reports (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1957), p. 762.
72. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1957, Volume III, Area Reports (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1958), p. 716.
96
no plans were undertaken for its replacement.73 During the early 1960s some of the
stockpiled concentrate at the Minerva and Everitt mines was shipped to the Nevada
Scheelite tungsten carbide plant in Mineral County.74 The last of the stockpiled tungsten
concentrate, produced in previous years at the Everitt Mine, was shipped to a California
paratungstate plant in 1964.75
A survey of the Minerva district by the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1958 found that no mines
were active "due to the depressed price of tungsten" and the removal of price supports for
the mineral. Assessment work, however, was being continued on 53 unpatented lode and
8 patented claims in "the Minerva area." The seven principal mines in the district were
described:
The La Donna lead prospect is located in Swallow Canyon in projected sec.
4, T. 1 1 N., R. 68 E. An 80 foot adit, 2 short shafts, and a 75-foot surface
cut explored a small showing of galena and corus-site lead associated with
a limestone fissure.
The Hilltop tungsten mine located in the north half of projected sec. 16, T.
11 N., R. 68 E. was developed by a 140-foot drift, 40-feet winne and stopes
to surface. Scheelite ore was transported from the adit by an aerial
tramway, now dismantled.
Tungsten Queen mine (Canary Yellow) located near the center of projected
sec. 16, T. 11 N., R. 68 E.
East and West Everitt mines (tungsten) located in the north half of projected
sec. 21, T. 11 N., R. 68 E.
Oriole mine (tungsten) located in the west half of projected sec. 21, T. 11 N.,
R. 68 E.
The Chief mine (Scheelite Chief) located in the entrance northwest corner of
projected sec. 29, T. 1 1 N., R. 68 E.
Silver Bell tungsten mine located in the north half of projected sec. 28, T. 1 1
N., R. 68 E., on the north slopes of Minerva Canyon.
The above listed mines have estimated combined underground workings
totaling over 10,000 feet.76
In 1968 Reginald G. Lee and Sons obtained a lease and option on the Minerva mines and
mill site. For several years the Lees pursued small exploration efforts on the Minerva
property which consisted of seven patented lode claims, one patented five-acre mill site, 69
73. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1958, Volume III, Area Reports (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1958), p. 600.
74. U.S Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1960, Volume 3, Area Reports (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1961), p. 661.
75. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1964, Volume III, Area Reports: Domestic (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1965), p. 662.
76. "Report on the Investigations of Mineralization In and Adjacent to the Humboldt National Forest,
Mt. Wheeler Area," November 5, 1958, pp. 6-7.
97
unpatented lode claims, one sixty-acre placer claim, and twenty acres of deeded land used
for the mill site, all of which were contiguous. The Lees began their exploration program
by drilling rotary drill holes at the West Everitt Mine, and concluded that further exploration
and development should be conducted on the Scheelite Chief, Everitt, and Oriole veins.77
According to the Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology in 1976 total production for the
district "probably" exceeded $2,000,000. Production records, however, are incomplete or
not available. A copy of the available production records as noted in the report may be
seen below.78
TABLE 22. Shoshone mining district, summary of recorded production through 1968.
[0, none; *. estimated, partly estimated, or computed; w, withheld to avoid disclosing individual
company confidential figures; blank, figures not available]
Ore, old tailings
Total value
Gold
Silver
Lead
Tungsten
Productive
sold or treated
when sold
(short ton
years
(short tons)
$
(ounces)
(ounces)
(pounds)
units)
1869
Few
0
1911
22
1,735
0
411
33,706
0
1916-1918
>33,204
>63,208
0
0
0
>2,037
1932
0
0
0
Few
1934
41
456
3
550
0
1936-1943
11,516
1,667,559
0
150
0
83,000
Do.
14
712
0
224
11,600
0
1944-1945
0
0
0
8,500
1946
3
60
0
74
0
0
1947
0
0
0
1948
37
2,301
0
249
1 1 ,600
0
1948-1962
0
0
0
0
0
0
Totals
143,837
1,742,031
1,658
56,906
93,537
MOUNT WASHINGTON (LINCOLN) MINING DISTRICT
Location
The Mount Washington Mining District, once known as the Lincoln district and sometimes
referred to as the St. Lawrence or Mount Wheeler district in recent years, covers the west
slope of the Snake Range from Williams Canyon south to Lincoln Canyon. It includes
Mount Washington and Lincoln Peak near its eastern boundary and is approximately
coextensive with T. 12 N., R. 68 E.79
History
The first discovery in this district was the so-called Washington copper-lead-antimony
deposit on Mount Washington on July 10, 1869. Two days later, the Lincoln district was
established, including areas on the east slope of the Snake Range that later became part
77. Reginald G. Lee, "Summary of Report on Minerva Tungsten Mines, White Pine County, Nevada," May
20, 1971, File No. 332, Minerva Mining District, Nevada Mining District Collection, Nevada Bureau of Mines and
Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
78. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, pp. 76-77.
79. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, p. 58.
98
of the Snake and Lexington districts. The Nevada state mineralogist described this district
in his report for 1869-70:
This district is principally on the western slope of the Snake mountains, about
fifteen miles south of Sacramento District. Wheeler's Peak, formerly known as
Jeff Davis' Peak, is immediately north of Lincoln district. This peak is very
prominent, having an altitude of twelve thousand three hundred and nine feet
above the sea level. The body of this mountain is quartzite. ... On the east
side of the mountain, there is a great abundance of timber, consisting of fir,
white and yellow pine and tamarack. Trees three feet in diameter attain an
altitude of one hundred and seventy-five feet, and are very straight. Mountain
mahogany, nut, pine and juniper are common. Water occurs in springs sufficient
for mining purposes. Bunch grass is very fine. Several small streams flow
down the eastern slope of the mountains, and are tributary to Snake Creek.
Snake Creek Lake, in the valley east of the mountain, is about two miles long,
and probably a quarter of a mile wide. Trout abound in it. There are several
thousand acres of fine meadow and agricultural lands in this neighborhood.
The valley on the west has a strip of meadow land, some of it fine for
agricultural purposes, extending along the valley for about fifteen miles; there
are a great number of very fine springs and a grove of red cedar trees, or
rather a succession of groves for several miles; hardy vegetables, corn, wheat
and barley do well. The mines are in a timbered region, in a belt of limestone.
The report elaborated on the most significant early mines in the district:
The Washington mine was located July 12th, 1869. Eight hundred feet are
claimed; width of croppings about eight feet; the ore runs in a seam about four
feet wide; specimens assayed $517 per ton, carrying some copper, lead and
antimony. This mine is nearly on the summit of the mountain, at an altitude of
nearly eleven thousand feet above sea level.
The Ohio is west of the Washington about one hundred feet on a parallel vein;
the claim covers eight hundred feet; course, north. The location was made
July 12th, 1869; width, from eight to twelve inches.
The Iowa is a few feet from the Ohio; is on a parallel vein three feet wide; the
ore shows copper and chloride of silver; there are great quantities of spar, black
and white, cropping about this ledge.
The north and south extensions of the Washington are similar to the Washington
in every respect; they are each terminated by breaks in the hill, making
precipices from five to fifteen hundred feet high.
The Buena Vista and Worcester are parallel on the Buena Vista Hill. There are
eight hundred feet in each claim; course, north; the claims are a hundred feet
apart; the ore is similar to the ore from the Washington; there are several other
claims on this hill.
The Young America extends east and west, along a canon between the
Washington and Buena Vista hills; the ore shows through a distance of eight
99
hundred feet. The claim covers one thousand feet, and was located July 31st,
1869; the vein matter is about eighteen feet wide.
The Canaan crops along the crest of a spur of the mountain near the west end
of the hill, six or eight feet in height; and through a distance of one thousand
six hundred feet. Width from eight to ten feet. It was located July 21st, 1869;
the claim covers eight hundred feet.
The Balbach is the western extension of the Canaan; the Carson is the eastern
extension; there are six claims further east on the same vein.
The Sheffield is on the northwestern face of the Buena Vista hill; course, north.
A cross vein cuts the Sheffield at right angles, and is called the Cross Lead;
each vein is about three feet wide, with vein matter extending to the width of
twelve feet; they crop boldly at the foot of a precipice seventy feet high; the
Cross Lead shows all the way up the precipice.
The Passaic is situated two thousand feet south of the Sheffield. It was located
August 1st, 1869. One thousand two hundred feet are claimed; width of vein
matter twelve feet, showing ore in spots, which assays $62 in silver; it carries
galena.
There are many other claims, all showing ore more or less, but no
developments have been made. The mineral belt is about four miles long,
north and south, and about two miles wide. The mountain is exceedingly
broken and rough.80
Despite the promise of these mines, however, the inaccessibility of the Mount Washington
area and its distance from a railroad made it impractical to engage in active full-scale
operations.
In 1899, some thirty years after the initial discoveries at Mount Washington, William Bacon,
a long-time prospector in eastern Nevada, located claims "along the strike of the vein" that
would later become the focus of the St. Lawrence Mine. He sank shallow shafts at various
places along the vein for a distance of nearly two miles and found lead ore in each. From
these openings he mined several tons of ore which he took down the mountain on mule
back and shipped to a Salt Lake City smelter by wagon and railroad. The ore averaged
77 percent lead and 66 ounces of silver per ton.81
The silver-lead claims on Mount Washington were apparently purchased by A.H. Vaughan
of Seattle, Washington, for $6,000 in late 1903. Several years later in February 1906 the
White Pine News reported that a 20-foot tunnel had been excavated at Mount Washington
and a rich vein of ore contacted. A boarding house, bunkhouse, and blacksmith shop had
been completed, and three shifts of men were working on the tunnel under the
management of Orson Hudson.82
80. Report of the Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1869 and 1870, pp. 95-96.
81. "The St. Lawrence Mine," F.C. Williams, President and General Manager, July 30, 1908, File No. 331,
Lincoln Mining District, Nevada Mining District Collection, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of
Nevada, Reno. Also see H.D. Keiser, "Development of St. Lawrence Property, Near Ely, Nev., Started," Engineering
and Mining Journal, CXXV (June 16, 1928), 987.
82. "Mining Summary - Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, LXXXVII (November 14, 1903), 327, and White
Pine News, February 20, 1906.
100
These mining activities led to the establishment of the St. Lawrence Mining Company. In
August 1906 the aforementioned Bacon and F.C. Williams formed the Adirondack Mining
Company to develop the ledge of silver-lead that ran for some thirty feet and had estimated
values of $60 per ton. Officers of the new company included D.G. Cahoon of Rochester,
New York, as president, Williams as general manager, and John Reynolds as director.
Later in September 1907 the company was reorganized as the St. Lawrence Mining
Company with a capitalization of $2,000,000. Among the leaders of the new concern were
Williams as president, Reynolds as director, and Orson Hudson, as assistant manager. The
earliest efforts of the new firm were to extend operations along the St. Lawrence ledge to
the south and drive a cross-cut some 25 feet through the ledge at the 600-foot level.83
In July 1908 Williams described the property, facilities, and operations of the St. Lawrence
Mining Company in a lengthy report. He stated:
The property now consists of thirty claims (over 600 acres), valuable water rights
and equipment.
There are eighteen (18) lode claims, each 1500 feet by 600 feet. Six are along
the strike of the main vein for a distance of 9000 feet. Twelve claims parallel
these and are very heavily timbered. The other twelve are placer claims and
mill sites, etc.
The Company's water rights are ample for a mill or from 500 to 1000 tons daily
capacity and can be developed for power under a thousand foot head. The
distance from the mill site is only about one mile.
The strike of the vein is east of north and runs over the summit of
Mt. Washington, a mammoth limestone mountain. The mountain has been split
by a large fissure vein which can be traced the entire length of the claim. The
lime formation which the vein cuts is estimated to be about 2500 feet deep.
The vein cuts through the characteristic lime and quartzite formation in which
the great lead-silver mines are found.
The conditions obtaining for economical mining cannot be surpassed. It is an
ideal tunnel proposition, the contour of the ground being such that a tunnel
driven in on the vein gains a depth of nearly one foot for every three feet driven
which will eventually reach a depth of 3000 feet. A depth of 1000 feet more
can be gained by a cross-cut channel started in Lincoln Canyon, near the mill-
site, by driving about 3000 feet.
No hoisting of ore or pumping of water will ever be necessary, which is a most
important feature. The timber is in great abundance, sufficient to last the
company a great many years. It is located above the workings, is very
accessible, requiring but little handling to bring it to the mine.
The mine is developed by tunnels and cross-cuts, also by shafts and surface
openings. There are at present three tunnels driven in directly on the vein.
One is in 700 feet reaching a depth from the surface of 300 feet. This tunnel
has opened ore shoots several hundred feet in length and from 20 to 60 feet
wide. About 400 feet from the mouth, a cave was encountered about 80 feet
long, 20 feet wide and from 40 to 60 feet high. The floor was covered with ore
83. White Pine News, August 21, 1906, and April 6, July 11, September 5, 7, 12, and October 19, 24, 1907.
101
and chunks of galena were found weighing from 100 to 600 pounds, assaying
80% lead and 60 ounces silver. The other two tunnels are each in about 100
feet and are in ore all the way.
The vein is exposed by shafts and surface openings short distances apart, for
a distance of nearly two miles on the company's claims, showing ore in every
opening. The shafts are from 5 to 50 feet deep and the cross-cuts show the
vein to be from 20 to more than 60 feet wide.
The character of the ore so far explored is lead-silver, a great percentage being
galena, shot through the decomposed lime, while occasionally sand and hard
carbonates are encountered; the ore for the most part, is of a concentrating
nature; however, there is considerable high grade ore which can be sorted,
needing no concentration. All the ore, no matter how low grade, carries silver.
The silver is held in combination with the lead, the gangus carrying no value.
The character of the ore is such, that in concentrating it, only the simplest kind
of machinery is required to save the values.84
In September 1908 the Mining and Scientific Press reported that the St. Lawrence Mining
Company would soon "start construction on a 100-ton mill in Lincoln Canyon." A one-
mile gravity tramway would carry the ore from the mine to the concentrating mill. The
foundation would be built that fall, but actual construction "of the mill and an aerial
tramway" would be "rushed" the following spring. The ore was said "to contain 60% lead
and some silver."85
In April 1909 the Mining and Scientific Press reported on the continuing progress at the
St. Lawrence Mine. The mining company had employed six men during the winter,
"developing a body of lead ore, much of which samples 40 to 60% lead and 40 oz. silver
per ton." The work, which was managed by F.C. Williams and supervised by Orson
Hudson, was opened by "an adit that has been driven 400 ft. on the vein." By extending
the adit further, a "depth of 300 ft." would "be gained, as the mountain at this place" rose
"abruptly to that height." An aerial tramway from the mine to the valley below was still
planned, "requiring a line 2 miles long."86
By 1911 the St. Lawrence Mine consisted of a series of five tunnels on the vein, "making
levels 100 feet apart." That year 22 tons of lead-silver ore were produced at the mine,
which was the only active operation in the district.87
The St. Lawrence Mine continued to operate during World War I, producing high grade ore
averaging 75 percent lead and 60 ounces of silver per ton. It was reported that sturdy
cabins were constructed of bristlecone pine to house the miners. Since road access was
not available, the ore was sacked and transported down the mountain by mule, and during
84. "The St. Lawrence Mine," July 30, 1908, by F.C. Williams, File No. 331, Lincoln Mining District, Nevada
Mining District Collection, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
85. "General Mining News - Nevada, Scientific and Mining Press, XCVII (September 19, 1908), 374.
86. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, XCVIII (April 17,
1909), 539.
87. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1911, Part I - Metals
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1912), p. 702.
102
the war it was even tobogganed off the mountain on rock sleds that followed a nearby
hogback ridge.88
Apparently, operations at the St. Lawrence Mine were either discontinued or scaled-back
drastically in the aftermath of World War I. Extensive development of the property was not
recommenced until April 1928 when new operations were planned with financial backing
from New York investors. The projected work included driving of a 1,700-foot 8x8-foot
tunnel to intersect the ore body some 2,050 feet below the lowest of the five tunnels drilled
during the early 1900s. The new tunnel would intersect the ore body "at a point about
1,700 ft. from the portal and 1,200 ft. below the lowest ore exposure." Construction of
roads and camp buildings began on April 1 , following the acquisition of a bond and lease
on the property in February. Seven patented claims in the St. Lawrence group, all along
the strike of the ore zone, and twelve additional claims with water rights and suitable mill
sites comprised the New York-based company's holdings. By June seventeen men were
employed, and operations were in charge of E. Henderson, former manager of the Franklin
Mine near Houghton, Michigan. The geologic nature and company operations were
described in the Engineering and Mining Journal on June 16, 1928:
The lead-silver ore deposits occur as replacements in large limestone beds,
having an approximate thickness of 2,500 ft. and underlain with quartzite.
These beds have been elevated 12,500 ft. in the northern part of the property,
where they have a southerly dip of about 35 deg. The most pronounced
geologic feature on the property is a great composite fracture, 40 ft. in width,
called the St. Lawrence lode. This has broken across the bedded formation for
at least 12,000 ft. Later fractures cut the St. Lawrence lode at right angles and
enlarge it at the points of intersection. No igneous rocks are found on the
property itself, but in the region of Mount Wheeler, 4 miles north, large masses
of porphyry are exposed, and prominent dikes, running in a southerly direction
toward the St. Lawrence property, intrude the sedimentaries. These dikes are
apparently the source of the mineralization.
All necessary equipment is on the property, including an 80-hp. heavy duty type
C-SS Primm oil engine; one WG-6 12x10-in. 380-cu. ft. Sullivan compressor
with a 48x10-in. air receiver; a 11-1/2-kw. 125-volt Westinghouse generator; a
T-4 Coppus blower and a rotary power saw. Surface buildings comprise a
20x40-ft. compressor house; three-room office building; one superintendent's
building; three bunk houses; and a kitchen and boarding house.
A 2-in. gravity pipe line 7,000 ft. long, running from a spring, 1,500 ft. above the
camp site, is used in conveying water to the camp. The property is well
timbered, which is unusual for a Nevada camp, and is favorably situated as
regards highways, there being good roads from the camp to Ely and to Pioche,
70 miles distant.89
88. Read, White Pine Lang Syne, p. 185, and U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular
Affairs, Great Basin National Park In Nevada: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Committee
on Interior and Insular Affairs, United States Senate, Eighty-Sixth Congress, First Session on S. 2664 .... Ely,
Nevada, December 5 and 7, 1959 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1960), pp. 59-60. Hereinafter, this
document will be referred to as 1959 Ely Hearings.
89. "Development of St. Lawrence Property," Engineering and Mining Journal, XLVIII (June 16, 1928), 987.
103
Development of the St. Lawrence Mine soon languished, however, as a result of the onset
of the Great Depression in 1929. For the next twenty years various "desultory leasing
operations were conducted by pioneering spirits with but small production."90
During the summer of 1948 three men, James G. Hulse, Victor Coltins, and Shirley Robison
of Pioche and Ely, constructed a jeep road from Spring Valley to the top of the
St. Lawrence claims. The men mined the claims during 1948-49 and shipped four railroad
carloads of lead-silver ore, averaging about 30 percent lead and 18 ounces of silver per
ton. A total of 75 tons of ore were produced, yielding 915 ounces of silver, 16 pounds of
copper, and 56,836 pounds of lead. When the price of lead declined during the summer
of 1949, the operation became uneconomical and activity halted.91
In July 1950 James D. Williams, a resident of Salt Lake City and operator of mines in
Nevada and Utah, obtained agreements from the three men conveying their operating
rights. Soon thereafter, Williams interested the Combined Metals Reduction Company and
the American Zinc, Lead and Smelting Company in providing initial funds to examine, map,
and explore the St. Lawrence lead-silver fissure "from a lower elevation by means of a long
adit tunnel" in Lincoln Canyon. In November he established Mount Wheeler Mines, Inc.,
a firm in which he served as president, director, and general manager. During the tunnel
work substantial deposits of previously unknown tungsten ore were discovered, and by 1954
some 4,000 tons of the ore, averaging 1.10 percent tungstic trioxide, were shipped to a
Stockton, Utah, plant for treatment and smelting. This initial work was done with the
assistance of DMEA funds, and in the aggregate approximately $1,000,000 of gross value
tungsten ore was delineated but not mined because of the expiration of the domestic
tungsten purchase program of the U.S. Government. Significantly, the fissure was found
to be the source of beryllium in 1951.92
In 1954 an agreement was made with the Cyprus Mines Corporation, whereby it undertook
to advance the tunnel an additional 7,000 feet by drilling a second adit in Pole Canyon,
some 1-1/2 miles south, to further explore the ore body. To this end additional DMEA
funds were granted, some 200 men were employed, and approximately 200 tons of
tungsten ore were produced daily for a short period. A concentrating mill was started on
Willard Creek to process the ore. The venture was a failure, however, because the fissure
was never cut nor identified at the horizon of the long tunnel. At a number of points within
this tunnel, however, beryl "was observed although apparently not in quantities sufficient to
excite either the DMEA or Cyprus Mines." This discovery was significant because beryllium
was lighter than aluminum and stronger than steel and thus had far-reaching advantages
for use in missiles, rockets, and other facets of the space industry. At the conclusion of
this venture in 1957 it was decided to remove all the machinery, buildings, and personal
90. 1959 Ely Hearings, p. 199.
91. ]bid., and U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1949, pp. 1,532 and 1,538.
92. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Great Basin National Park Hearing
Before the Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, United States Senate,
Eighty-Seventh Congress, First Session on S. 1760 .... August 3, 1961 (Washington Government Printing Office,
1961), p. 70. (Hereinafter, this document will be referred to as 1961 Hearing). U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals
Yearbook, Area Reports, Volume III, 1952, pp. 576, 608; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, Area Reports,
Volume III, 1953, pp. 634, 672; and U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, Area Reports, Volume III, 1954, p.
706.
104
property at the tunnel and camp locations because of the high cost of maintaining adequate
protection.93
A survey of the Mount Washington district by the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1958 found no
active mining operations. There were, however, 11 patented and 99 unpatented claims
held by assessment work. The mines and associated features were described in the
survey report:
The Hudson Tunnel of the St. Lawrence lead-silver mine is located in projected
sec. 14, T. 12 M., R. 68 E. It explores the St. Lawrence fissure for 700 feet
by drift and raises. Other short drifts, shafts and cuts explore the fissure along
a strike length of 1200 feet.
The Bonanza Tunnel located in the north fork of Lincoln canyon in projected
sec. 22, T. 12 M., R. 68 E. was started to crosscut the St. Lawrence fissure at
depth. It was driven 330 feet before being abandoned.
The Pole Adit (tungsten) portal is located in Pole Canyon in projected east
portion of sec. 16, T. 12 N., R. 68 E. The workings extend easterly beneath
the St. Lawrence mine for 8318 feet of crosscuts and drifts and 164 feet of
raises.
93. 1961 Hearing, p. 70; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1956, Volume III, Area Reports, pp. 724,
762; and U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1957, Volume III, Area Reports, p. 716. See the following
pages for DMEA maps of the development work. The maps are located in File No. 331, Lincoln Mining District,
Nevada Mining District Collection, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
105
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The bureau concluded that several thousand tons of 0.8 percent tungstic trioxide were
"indicated in the workings" of the Pole Adit which would "be of future economic importance."
Surface showings at the St. Lawrence fissure would "undoubtedly continue to be prospected
and mined, dependent on the current values of lead and silver." Possibilities existed that
"further exploration" would "discover favorable replacement beds adjacent to the fissure at
depth and large lead-silver reserves" would "be indicated."94
In 1958 the Research Center of the Kennecott Copper Corporation in Salt Lake City
conducted a spectrograph ic analysis of the tungsten ore samples in the Mount Wheeler
mining operations. This study revealed the presence of the beryllium-bearing minerals
phenacite and bertrandite. The former was four times richer than beryl and was unique in
that it was not associated with the usual pegmatitic deposition. At the time this was the
only known deposit of its kind in the world. Soon the Bear Creek Mining Company, the
exploration arm of the Kennecott Copper Corporation, conducted a comprehensive field
examination of the Mount Wheeler properties. Similar examinations were made by the
American Zinc, Lead and Smelting Company, the Food Machinery and Chemical
Corporation, and the Hidden Splendor Mining Company. The field work associated with
these investigations included 7,000 feet of underground diamond drilling, 450 feet of drifts,
and 200 feet of tunneling. It was estimated that the Mount Wheeler properties contained
reserves in excess of 100,000 tons of ore averaging more than 0.75 percent beryllium
oxide.
In February 1959 the results of these examinations were made public. After lengthy
negotiations Mount Wheeler Mines, Inc., was transferred under stock option to Salt Lake
City-based Beryllium Resources, Inc., in anticipation of the payment of $1,900,000 for all
of its outstanding common stock. The newly organized company was an exploration and
development firm formed by the consolidation of four active North American uranium
companies: Radorock Resources, Inc.; Federal Uranium Corporation; Lisbon Uranium
Corporation; and Hidden Splendor Mining Company. Preliminary work in Pole Canyon
consisted of a reserve determination and mineral assemblage study, followed by a pilot
testing of the newly developed reagent on the ores. It was hoped that the beryllium could
be concentrated to a minimum of ten and eleven percent beryllium oxide, after which it
could be used either as an alloy with other metals or for making pure beryllium metal.95
In March 1960 Beryllium Resources, Inc., completed its exploration activities on the property
of Mount Wheeler Mines, Inc., and relinquished its lease. Some 2,000 tons of development
ore, averaging 0.5 percent beryllium oxide, was stockpiled. Other investigations, however,
demonstrated that the deposit with the largest proven beryllium reserves and which showed
the greatest adaptability to a recently-developed flotation process by the U.S. Bureau of
Mines was located at Spore Mountain, some seventy miles northwest of Delta, Utah.96
Later in December 1960 the Anaconda Company acquired a two-year option on 103 claims
of Mount Wheeler Mines, Inc., and 16 claims of the adjoining Jeppson group. The
94. "Report on the Investigations of Mineralization In and Adjacent to the Humboldt National Forest, Mt.
Wheeler Area," November 5, 1958, pp. 4-7.
95. 796/ Hearing, pp. 70-71; Ely Daily Times, September 21, 1959; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook,
1959, Volume 3, Area Reports (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1960), pp. 623, 627, 647; and U.S.
Geological Survey and Nevada Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 65, Mineral and Water Resources of Nevada (Reno,
Mackay School of Mines, University of Nevada, 1964), p. 74.
96. The new flotation process provided for treatment of beryllium ores with a solution containing the beryllium
minerals of bertrandite and phenacite in association with calcite, fluorspar, mica, quartz, and other accessory
minerals.
110
company planned extensive underground exploration and development of the known
beryllium bearing zones and an investigation of the entire area to determine the extent of
its beryllium mineralization. The company began construction of a 5,000-ton-per-day sulfide
flotation plant. The U.S. Bureau of Mines Salt Lake City Metallurgy Research Center
conducted concentration tests on the complex Mount Wheeler ores. Among other results,
the tests revealed more beryllium than could be accounted for by the small quantities of
beryl that had been observed at the mine.97
During 1961 underground exploration of the beryllium-bearing fissures and quartz veins of
the Mount Wheeler Mine and adjoining Jeppson property was completed by a contractor
for the Anaconda Company. Additional discoveries of beryllium minerals and fluorite were
made more than a mile north of the Mount Wheeler Mine.98
In 1962 the Anaconda Company acquired the lease and option to the holdings of Mount
Wheeler Mines, Inc., and continued exploration of its extensive beryllium deposit. The
company's lease on the adjoining Jeppson property, however, was dropped. Ore from the
Mount Wheeler Mine was sent to the U.S. Bureau of Mines research facilities in Salt Lake
city for testing.99
Despite the promise of the Mount Wheeler Mine, the Anaconda Company announced
termination of its interest in the beryllium property as of December 31, 1963, and
abandoned its lease and option to the claims. At the same time it was reported that no
activity had occurred "at the Swallow property and on the Bida and Robison claims in the
same area."100
During an investigation in 1963 the U.S Bureau of Mines found that the Mount Wheeler
property consisted of more than 180 lode claims. Tungsten ore produced from the
development openings was stockpiled on the mine dump and contained about 0.7 percent
tungstic trioxide.101
97. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1960, Volume 3, Area Reports, pp. 636, 639-40, 661, and H.K.
Stager, "A New Beryllium Deposit at the Mount Wheeler Mine, White Pine County, Nevada," in Short Papers in the
Geological Sciences, Geological Survey Research 1960, Geological Survey Professional Paper 400-B (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1960), pp. B 70-71.
98. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1961, Volume III, Area Reports (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1962), pp. 663, 685; Donald H. Whitebread and Donald E. Lee, "Geology of the Mount Wheeler
Mine Area, White Pine County, Nevada," in Short Papers in the Geologic and Hydrologic Sciences, Articles 147-
292, Geological Survey Research 1961, Geological Survey Professional Paper 424-C (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1961), pp. C 120-22; U.S. Bureau of Mines, "Flotation of Bertrandite and Phenacite From Mount
Wheeler, Nev., Beryllium Ore, Report of Investigation 5875," by Richard Havens, W.I. Nissen, and J.B. Rosenbaum,
1961, pp. 1-14; Donald E. Lee and Harry Bastron, "Allanite from the Mount Wheeler Area, White Pine County,
Nevada," American Mineralogist, XLVII (November-December, 1947), 1327-31; and Donald E. Lee and Richard C.
Erd, "Phenakite from the Mount Wheeler Area, Snake Range, White Pine County, Nevada," American Mineralogist,
XLVIII (January-February, 1963), 189-93.
99. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1962, Volume III, Area Reports (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1963), pp. 677, 682.
100. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1963, Volume III, Area Reports (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1964), pp. 695, 699.
101. "Mount Wheeler," USBM Unpubl. Data, 1963, File No. 331, Lincoln Mining District, Nevada Mining District
Collection, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
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Geological Survey Professional Paper 424-C, p. C-121.
112
During 1970-71 Mount Wheeler Mines, Inc., and the W.S. Moore Company of Duluth,
Minnesota, commenced development and exploratory work on their property at the Mount
Wheeler Mine. At that time the W.S. Moore Company held 99.2 percent of outstanding
stock in Mount Wheeler Mines, Inc., under a purchase option. The property consisted of
11 patented and 73 unpatented claims in the St. Lawrence, Pole Cat, Pole, Canaan, and
Bonanza groups. According to the Mines Register of 1970-71 the operations to date on
the claims consisted of "17,000 ft. of underground working consisting of main 8,200 ft.
Pole Adit & 8,800 ft. crosscuts, laterals, raises & drifts." The claims contained substantial
"reserves of scheelite & phenakite-bertrandite beryllium ores." The St. Lawrence fissure
contained "important lead-silver on surface & in shallow works." Fluorite was also
considered to be an important "supplementary" value of the claims.102
During 1978-79 National Treasure Mines leased the Mount Wheeler Mine and properties.
The firm contracted with the Centennial Development Company to conduct exploration and
assess the Pole Canyon Adit. The decline in the price of beryllium, however, led to a
cessation of activity. When prospects for the beryllium industry improved in 1986, National
Treasure Mines completed a feasibility study on the "multi-mineral" deposit at the Mount
Wheeler Mine.
The feasibility study described the Mount Wheeler Mine as "a multi-mineral deposit with
potential for several millions of tons of beryllium, tungsten, tin, fluorspar, lead, zinc, and
silver-gold ores. A two-phase project was recommended to develop mine-concentrator
facilities for a capacity of 60,000 tons per year with planned expansion to 150,000 tons.
The potential annual revenue was estimated to be $9,800,000 at 60,000 tons and
$23,700,000 at 150,000 tons. Capital expenditures for the 60,000-ton operation were
estimated at "$1 1 .3 million with 2.5 years payback."103
OSCEOLA (WEAVER CREEK, SUMMIT DIGGINGS, HOGUM, WILLARD CREEK) MINING
DISTRICT
Location
The Osceola Mining District, possibly once called the Centennial district, is the only
predominantly placer gold district in White Pine County. It includes the Hogum, Weaver
Creek, Willard Creek, and Summit Diggings areas, as well as the principal lode mines
which are in the Dry Gulch area. The district covers both sides of the crest and the
western slope of the Snake Range from Osceola summit south to Willard Creek. Nearly
102. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1970, Volume III, Area Reports (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1971), pp. 456-57; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1971, Volume III, Area Reports
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1972), p. 466; A. Karl Rannells, ed., Mines Register, Volume XXIX,
1970-1971 (New York, The American Metal Market Co., 1972), p. 197.
103. Mining Record Newspaper, June 4, 1986; Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Special Publication Ml-
1986, The Nevada Mineral Industry, 1986 (Reno, Mackay School of Mines, University of Nevada, Reno, 1987), p.
9; and "Minutes of National Treasure Mine Meeting, January 15, 1987," Great Basin National Park General
Management Planning Team Files, Denver Service Center.
113
all of the gold mines are in T. 14 N., Rs. 67-68 E. In addition to the gold mines, the Bat
Cave guano mine in Sec. 25, T. 15 N., R. 67 E., is included in the Osceola district.104
History
Gold lodes were discovered by two prospectors, James Matteson and Frank Heck, in
August 1872, and the Osceola Mining District was established two months later.105 The
Exchange claim on the northeast slope of Pilot Knob Ridge above Dry Gulch was the first
to be located. Other discoveries of gold-bearing quartz veins followed quickly in five
principal groups: (1) Gold Exchange; 2) Mary Ann Canyon (Serpent); (3) Summit;
(4) Whitney; and (5) Mulligan. The most extensive early underground workings were in
the Star, Crescent, Time Check, and Exchange mines of the Gold Exchange group on
Pilot Knob, the ores being milled by the old arrastra method employed by the Spanish.
Within several years mining operations had been developed at the Cumberland Mine and
the Osceola, Golden Eagle, and Credit ledges. In his report for 1875-76 the Nevada state
mineralogist described some of these operations:
Through the courtesy of Mr. George G. Blair we are able to summarize the
workings of this district during the last two years, as follows: The Cumberland
mine, owned by the above gentleman, was located in October, eighteen hundred
and seventy-four. At a depth of forty feet it shows a ledge six feet in width,
which carries a very fair grade of free gold and gold-bearing sulphuret ore,
which works sixty-five dollars per ton. The ledge runs east-northeast by west-
south west, and stands almost perpendicular. The formation is quartzite.
The Osceola ledge, also located and owned by Mr. Blair, has been worked by
an incline to a depth of thirty feet, and shows a ledge sixteen inches in
thickness. Some of the ore is of an excellent character. The footwall is
quartzite, and the hanging wall is slate. The course is east and west, the pitch
being south at an angle of seventy degrees.
The Golden Eagle ledge, owned by James S. Matson, stands almost
perpendicular, and is worked by a shaft one hundred feet in depth and a drift
from the bottom running fifty feet east. The ledge is shown to be thirty-three
inches in thickness. Also, one runs fifteen feet to the west, which shows the
ledge twenty inches in thickness. The ore of this averages, according to various
estimates, from twenty to fifty dollars per ton in gold, there being free gold and
gold-bearing sulphurets in most all portions of the ledge.
The Credit ledge, owned and worked by W.A. McDonald & Co., lies almost on
the summit of the Snake range, and runs northwest by southeast, the pitch
104. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, p. 60. An examination of the geology and
mineral resources in the district may be found in F.B. Weeks, "Geology and Mineral Resources of the Osceola
Mining District, White Pine County, Nev.," in U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 340, Contributions to Economic
Geology, 1907, Part I - Metals and Nonmetals, Except Fuels (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1908),
pp. 117-22; U.S. Geological Survey, Geological Survey Professional Paper 610, Principal Gold-Producing Districts
of the United States, by A.H. Koschmann and M.H. Bergendahl (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1968),
p. 200; and U.S. Geological Survey, Geological Survey Bulletin 1356, Placer Gold Deposits of Nevada, by Maureen
G. Johnson (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1973), pp. 93-95.
105. The district was reportedly named for Osceola, the Seminole Indian Chief who led the fight against U.S.
troops in Florida in 1835. This appellation was apparently adopted at the request of a Southern miner who was
among those establishing the district. Read, White Pine Lang Syne, p. 151.
114
being southwest at an angle of forty-five degrees. The work is carried on by
a tunnel in the mountain upon the ledge, which is eighteen inches in thickness,
and produces some very fine ore.
There are other claims in the district which show fair prospects, but which have
not yet had much work done upon them. There is but little silver produced, the
bullion from the arastra process being worth about sixteen dollars per ounce.
There is certainly enough ore here in these mines already opened to warrant
the erection of more extensive reduction works for reducing the ore on a larger
scale than can be done by the old-fashioned Mexican arastra. But the locators
and owners of these mines are men of limited means, and are obliged to use
the appliances at their command. Here is a good field for the investment of
capital, and it is hoped the attractions at Ward will turn some of it hitherward.106
Between 1872 and 1878 some 100 claims were staked on the quartz veins in the Osceola
district. According to the Nevada state mineralogist in 1878 the veins were
small, varying from one to three feet in width. The ores carry chiefly gold, and
contain from ten to twenty dollars per ton. The veins run generally north-east
by south-west. The Eagle is owned by Matteson & Co., the vein being about
four feet in width. It is worked through a shaft and levels from different stations.
More work has been done on this vein than on any other in the district. The
Crescent is from two to three feet in width. Free gold and gold-bearing
sulphurets are found in all the veins in the district, no attention being paid to
the savings of the silver. Near the summit of the Snake range of mountains
is found the Credit ledge. The vein is eighteen inches in width, and the work
is done through a tunnel. During the past summer, a small mill was erected
in the district, which has produced a good deal of gold bullion, worth about
eighteen dollars per ounce.107
The production of the lodes, however, was not sufficient to operate the mines at a profit.
Efforts were made to reduce the ores by various processes, among them the old arrastra
method. This process, however, was too slow and was thus abandoned, and the camp
languished for several years.108
In 1877 placer mines were discovered in the Osceola district by John Versan. The placers,
according to the state mineralogist, were located near the confluence of
two gulches which run nearly parallel with each other. One is called Dry Gulch
and the other Wet Gulch, and as indicated by their names, in one is found
water and in the other none. Dry Gulch has the greatest sweep from the
mountain, and in it are located most of the claims. The richest diggings are
found near the point where the two gulches come together. These claims have
been located in twenty-acre lots, eighty rods in length by twenty rods in width.
About three hundred claims in all have been located in both gulches.
106. Biennial Report of the State Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1875 and 1876, pp. 170-
71 , in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 8th Session, Vol. I.
107. Biennial Report of the State Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1877 and 1878, pp. 157-
58, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 9th Session.
108. E.E. Stuart, comp., Nevada's Mineral Resources (Carson City, State Printing Office, 1909), p. 98.
115
A large nugget which weighed twenty-four pounds was found last summer in
one of Mr. Versan's claims, worth about twenty-six hundred dollars.
The principal drawback to working the Osceola placers was the scarcity of water. By 1 878
the only supply of water was obtained by running a tunnel into Wet Gulch, where springs
yielded "about one [miner's]109 inch of water" for use in the rockers. Whenever sufficient
water could be brought to Osceola for sluicing operations, the Nevada state mineralogist
predicted that the "product of gold" would "be greatly increased, for many of the claims
which are idle now can then be profitably worked."110
The mining activity in the Osceola district was described at length in an article in the
Mining and Scientific Press of October 1878. Some 300 to 400 miners were working in the
district, and a five-stamp mill had been erected in Dry Gulch. The placers covered
an area of twenty miles square, much of the ground being cut up by deep
ravines and canyons, but in the canyons are beds and bars of gravel that
prospect well. Osceola, like one-half the camps in Nevada, is without water
sufficient for its demands, and a placer mining district without water is like a
Pioche saloon without whisky.
Meanwhile, the Osceola quartz gold ores were running "from $6 to $40 per ton." The ore
was free milling and yielded an average rate "of $15 gold per ton." The Eagle Company's
mill "made a run on 700 tons of ore, which yielded $10,000 worth of free gold, and then
a few assays from the tailings were reported as running from $5 to $22.50." While the mill
was idle at present, the company continued to employ fifteen men at the mines. The
favorable climate of Osceola permitted
the work to go on all winter, and the occasional finding of a rich nugget, has
kept about 100 men "coyoting" and prospecting about with rockers and the little
drippings of water, for the last six months, and this apparently insignificant work
has not been thrown away, as in the time mentioned these hundred men have
taken out upwards of $20,000 - all of this sum was collected by the use of the
rocker and pan only.111
With the discovery of the rich placer deposits in 1 877 the town of Osceola was established.
Within a relatively short time the settlement included stores, boarding houses, a Chinese
restaurant, and two stages running regularly to Ward.112 The town continued to grow and
by 1882 had a population of some 1,500. By the early 1880s, the town, which quickly
became a trade center for area mining camps and ranches included the following
businesses: Glascock-Marriott Store; (2) Heckethorn Store; (3) Scott Store; (4) post office
(established on March 26, 1878); (5) restaurant; (6) butcher shop; (7) blacksmith shop;
(8) jail; (9) assay office; and (10) three saloons. In his History of the State of Nevada in
1881, Myron Angel described the burgeoning town along with its mining operations and
other economic activities:
109. In Nevada, 50 miners' inches of water equalled one cubic foot per second.
110. Biennial Report of the State Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1877 and 1878, pp. 157-
58, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 9th Session.
111. "Nevada, Osceola District," Mining and Scientific Press, XXXVII (October 26, 1878), 268.
112. Ward Semi-Weekly Reflex, June 21, 1877, and Stanley W. Paher, Nevada Ghost Towns & Mining Camps
(Berkeley, Howell-North Books, 1970), pp. 261, 263.
116
There have been over 400 locations, of which there are sixty quartz and forty
placer that are probably good. The principal quartz mines are the Crescent,
Osceola Credit Mobilier, Cumberland, Eagle, Exchange and Silver Age. The
placer mines are the Wisel, Scofield, Cumberland, Gulch and Day Gulch. The
Crescent has a tunnel 500 feet long, which reached a depth of 250 feet below
the surface. It also has a shaft 125 feet deep. The nearest railroad station,
from which freight is brought, is Deseret, on the Utah Southern Railroad, 100
miles distant. The rate is thirty dollars per ton. Fire-wood is procured in
sufficient quantity close at hand, but material for timbering the mines is brought
seven or eight miles. The adjacent springs furnish a supply of water sufficient
for ninety stamps. Water for hydraulics is being brought from the small streams
from Wheeler's Peak, which will furnish about 100 miner's inches per day.
In Osceola there is one five-stamp mill. ... It is situated in the canon, with
abrupt mountains on the north and west, a high bluff, called Lookout Mountain,
on the south, and Wheeler's Peak on the east, and has an altitude of 7,500
feet. At present the town contains two stores, one hotel, one restaurant, one
livery stable, a blacksmith shop, and two other places of industry. Supplies are
obtained from San Francisco, by rail, to Eureka, and thence by stage 115 miles;
also from Salt Lake City, by rail, to Deseret, and thence by stage 100 miles.
The mail is brought from Deseret three times a week. The buildings are
constructed mostly of wood. A frame school house, 12x20, has been erected,
with seating capacity of thirty. In the vicinity of the town, grazing and agriculture
are engaged in with some profit, there being from twelve to fifteen persons
engaged in each.113
During 1883 and 1884 new placer and quartz mines were discovered in the Osceola
district, the gross yields for those years being about $300,000 and $250,000, respectively.
In the gulches miners were averaging "2.50 to $5.00 per day," the dust and nuggets
"passing for trade currency." The gold-bearing quartz belt, some 12 miles long by 7 miles
wide, had 13 principal mines - Cumberland, Osceola, Crescent, Eagle, Saturday Night,
Verde, Stem Winder, Gilded Age, Grandfather, Snide, Red Monster, Saturday Night, and
Royal Flush.
Despite the growth in mining activities, however, an insufficient water supply continued to
hamper placer operations. As a result, the miners used rockers in the placers during the
summer and waited for melting winter snows "to work over the gravel more thoroughly."
Accordingly, it was reported that "great interest" was being "manifested" in negotiations then
underway "for a water system which will convey it by a ditch, 18 miles, from Snake
Valley."114
The water system alluded to was a major engineering undertaking then being studied by
the Osceola Gravel Mining Company, a Salt Lake City-based firm owned principally by
Benjamin Hampton. Since 1877 the company had been interested in the Osceola placers,
endeavoring to extract gold from its claims using hydraulic methods similar to those
employed in the California gold fields. By 1884 the company had obtained through its
agent, Xavier St. Pierre, some 700 aces of placer ground, nearly 500 of which were
patented, in the Dry Gulch area just west of the town site. The "deep bars" on its claims
were found "to contain gravel varying in value from 45 cents [to] $1.25 per cubic yard."
Unusually heavy snows during the previous winter had "furnished the means of using a
113. Angel, ed., History of the State of Nevada, p. 662.
114. Report of the Director of the Mint Upon the Production of the Precious Metals in the United States During
the Calendar Year 1883 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1884), pp. 560-61.
117
small hydraulic, by which they washed from various places over 10,000 cubic yards of
gravel. 5
During 1884-85 the Osceola Gravel Mining Company constructed a 16-mile ditch to convey
the water of six creeks (Williams, Pine, Shingle, Raised, Spring, and Willard) on the west
side of the Snake Range to their placer operations. Known as the West Ditch, the
waterway, which cost some $80,000, was designed to carry between 1,000 and 1,100
miners' inches of water. Two engineers, whose names were Smith and Doremus, who had
worked on surveys for the Union Pacific Railroad, had charge of the construction, and a
Mr. Black of Deseret, Utah, and Judge Grover of Nephi, Utah, were the contractors, the
work being supervised by James H. Marriott of the Osceola Gravel Mining Company.116 As
later described in the Ely Mining Record of June 8, 1907, the head of the West Ditch was
on the western base of Mount Wheeler, sometimes called Jeff Davis Peak,
where the waters from Williams creek are turned from their natural course and
started in the winding ditch northward. As they follow along, the waters from
Ridge, Shingle and Willard creeks are checked in their downward rush and
made to mingle peacefully with each other as they slowly progress onward to
where their combined quantity is used to generate the power to tear down high
banks of the gold containing earth and cement, causing it to disintegrate and
drop its precious contents in the riffles of the sluice boxes.117
During construction of the West Ditch the Osceola Gravel Mining Company employed as
many as 125 to 175 men on the work at any one time.118 Little documentation is available
concerning the construction activities. In April 1885, however, one bizarre incident occurred
at Cherry Creek, the result of riotous celebrating by men constructing the ditch. The White
Pine News reported on April 18:
A crowd of "saintly young hoodlums," lately employed on the Osceola ditch,
invaded the quiet precincts of our town [Cherry Creek] Wednesday morning, and
about 1 1 o'clock at night, having got full of poor whisky, started in "to paint her
red." Chinatown was their base of operations, where they turned loose their
pistols and overawed the few residents of that place. One Chinaman was hit,
but not hurt. The celestials returned the fire, but we regret to say, with such
poor aim that the Mormon rowdies escaped uninjured. They lit out at day break
next morning to escape arrest.119
Although the West Ditch was completed in the spring or summer of 1885, it did not meet
the needs of the Osceola placer mining operations. The White Pine News reported on
September 12, 1885, for instance, that the Osceola hydraulic mines were "running very
1 15. Report of the Director of the Mint Upon the Production of the Precious Metals in the United States During
the Calendar Year 1884 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1885), pp. 369-70, and White Pine News, January
3, 1885.
116. "Some Mines of White Pine, Ward, Taylor, Osceola and Cherry Creek Districts," Mining and Scientific
Press, XLIX (December 20, 1884). 390.
117. Ely Mining Record, June 8, 1907.
118. White Pine News, January 31 and February 14, 1885.
119. White Pine News, April 18, 1885. See Appendix J for a discussion of the role of the Chinese in
constructing the West and East ditches at Osceola.
118
slow at present on account of the scarcity of water - only averaging about two hours per
day."120
Despite continuing water shortages the Osceola district held high promise as a major gold-
producing region. In August 1886 the Mining and Scientific Press printed a glowing
description of its possibilities for the periodical's national reading audience. According to
the article, Osceola was located
120 miles southeast of Eureka, the terminus of the Eureka & Palisade Railroad,
and 93 miles west of Frisco, the terminus of the Utah Southern Railroad. It is
connected with both railroads by a good wagon road, over which the heaviest
machinery can be transported at all seasons of the year. With Eureka the
district has a tri-weekly connection via the White Pine Stage Co.'s coaches,
carrying the U.S. mails and Wells, Fargo & Co.'s express, and with Frisco it has
a semi-weekly connection via Beers' Stage Line, carrying Pacific express.
The geographical situation of the district renders it a "competitive point" as
between the different railroads, and freights are cheaper than to any another
point in Nevada. Snake valley, 18 miles to the east, and Spring valley, lying
immediately under the district, two of the most prolific valleys in the State,
produce an overabundance of hay, grain and all kinds of vegetables and small
fruits, which are sold at cheaper rates than the same products command in
California.
The geological formation is slate, quartzite and limestone, the slate lying near
the base of the mountain, quartzite overlying the slate, and limestone capping
the whole. The district is deeply indented by a bold gulch or ravine, which
heads near the center of the mineral belt and flows thence three-fourths of a
mile in a northerly direction; thence making a short curve it flows westerly for
a distance of three miles and discharges into Spring valley. Along the bed
and bars of this gulch and its short tributaries are immense deposits of
auriferous gravel, varying in depth from 10 to 200 feet. From these gravel beds
and deposits there has been taken, during the last ten years, by the most
simple process (that of the common '49 rocker), over one-half million dollars in
gold-dust. The gold-dust thus obtained is what might justly be termed coarse
gold, the grains or nuggets varying in value from a few cents to as many
thousands of dollars. One nugget found in the sand near the surface of the
gulch contained over $6000, and with it is connected a very romantic history.
All the grains or nuggets of gold have more or less quartz adhering to them,
and this quartz is identical with that found in the ledges and veins on the
hillsides above.
Four miles from the above mines, on the edge of Spring valley, is an
abundance of water for milling purposes by steam power. The water will have
to be raised with pumps to a height of 20 feet. Wood can be obtained in
abundance delivered at the mill for $3 per cord.121
That same year Robert Briggs, a long-time mine operator and developer in California,
Nevada, and Utah, arrived at Osceola. After discovering some new gold ledges, he began
120. White Pine News, September 12, 1885.
121. "Osceola District, Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, l_ 1 1 1 (August 21, 1886), 118.
119
developing them and made plans to erect a mill. A biographical sketch of Briggs prepared
about 1887 provides detail as to the extent of mining in the district:
The ledges of gold bearing quartz yield from $12 to $13 a ton, giving a
reasonable compensation for treatment. The ledges are from four to eight feet
in width, running generally east to west, and having an inclination of 30° to the
south. ... All the ore will move to mill on a down grade, and can be carted
at 75 a ton. The gold from the quartz veins is nearly 21 carats fine.122
Despite the completion of the West Ditch in 1885 the Osceola placer operations continued
to be plagued by an inadequate water supply with which to conduct major hydraulic
activities. Accordingly, the Osceola Gravel Mining Company began surveys for a ditch that
would conduct water to Osceola from the east side of the Snake Range, thus
supplementing the water supply produced by the West Ditch. While the initial surveys for
the waterway, which would become known as the East Ditch, were conducted in 1885, the
ditch would not be constructed until 1889-90.
Several articles in the White Pine News during the fall of 1885 attest to the fact that
surveys for the East Ditch were underway. The newspaper reported on October 24, 1885:
Parties in from Osceola tell us it is rumored there that the Osceola Gravel
Mining Company has completed negotiations for the purchase of Lehman Creek.
If this should prove true that company has thoroughly tested the gravel beds of
that district, and the best has been so satisfactory that they see their way
through in going to the great expense of bringing water from Lehman Creek.
If the purchase has been made it is a hopeful sign for our neighbors across the
range.123
It is interesting to note that a small story in the same newspaper reported that Absalom S.
Lehman, the owner of a large 600-acre ranch in Snake Valley who had recently discovered
what came to be known as Lehman Caves, refused to confirm or deny the sale of his
water rights on Lehman Creek. The White Pine News observed that Lehman "made the
NEWS office a call yesterday. We interviewed him on the subject of the purchase of his
water rights by the Osceola Company. But he proved mum on the subject."124
The following week, on October 31, the White Pine News reported on the continuation of
surveys for the East Ditch. The article stated:
The Hydraulic Company have had their engineer (Smith) in the field, taking the
levels from the creeks in Snake Valley, and has reported favorably on the
feasibility of bringing in the water. He and Mr. Hampton (the Superintendent)
have gone to consult with the company in regard to the matter.1
During 1887 the Osceola Gravel Mining Company employed George W. Maynard, a
professor from New York and well-known mining engineer in the western United States, to
122. [Biographical Sketch of] Robert Briggs, ca. 1887, Manuscripts Division, Bancroft Library, University of
California, Berkeley. The biographical sketch contains a detailed account of the principal lode mines in the Osceola
district.
123. White Pine News, October 24, 1885.
124. ]bid.
125. Ibid., October 31, 1885.
120
make a detailed analysis of its properties, water problems, and financial assets. This
examination would set the stage for the construction of the East Ditch in 1889. According
to the Engineering and Mining Journal of December 3, 1887, the Maynard study described
the company property and prospects as follows:
712 acres of gold-bearing gravel in one body, held by indisputable titles;
exclusive water rights to six streams favorably situated for supplying water to
wash the gravel; a ditch 16 miles long and a distributing reservoir for utilizing
the water of said streams; one hundred and sixty eight acres of placer ground
(auriferous gravel) on the line of the ditch, five miles from the present workings;
2560 acres of desert land below the great placer for depositing tailings. A
Fraser & Chalmers 20-stamp mill of the best modern construction, which will be
made available when the quartz veins above Osceola come to be worked; two
ranches, covering 120 acres, of improved farming land for furnishing supplies.
The ground in the great placer known to contain gold-bearing gravel is three
miles long, of which 1-1/2 miles are 3000 feet wide, and the remaining upper
half over 1000 feet. The developments have proven the depth of the gravel to
range from 45 feet in the channel in the upper part of the gulch to 265 feet half
a mile below the present workings, with every evidence of increasing depth as
the valley is approached. The average depth of gravel below the present
workings may with confidence be estimated at 150 feet, which means
115,500,000 cubic yards. At 15 cents a cubic yard the gross value, therefore,
amounts to $17,000,000. Up to August 31st, 1886, 125,892 cubic yards had
been hydraulicked at one point known as the "Big Cut," yielding $29,715, equal
to 23.6 cents per cubic yard, with an average of but 356 miners' inches of water
for six to eight hours a day. With water for about 100 hours this season, over
600 ounces of gold, valued at $9700, have been cleaned up from the sluice and
the bed-rock. The limited supply of water is due to the exceptionally dry season
and the absence of storage reservoirs. In no one of the many shafts and
prospect holes sunk for exploration has the ground been barren. In the line
of the deep channels the average value of the gravel has been over twenty
cents to the cubic yard. The richness of the gravel, ranging from $1 1 to $50
per cubic yard just above and on the rock bed, brings the property into the front
rank of the richest California placers.
The prevalence of large nuggets is one of the most striking features of this
property. Mr. Maynard has in his possession nuggets ranging in weight from
2 ounces to 72 ounces, and of an aggregate value of over $3,000, taken from
the bed rock at and above the present workings - in estimating the value of the
gravel he has not included the nuggets.
The article went on to elaborate about the water needs of the company and some of
Maynard's recommendations for solving those problems. The existing 16-mile West Ditch,
with the addition of reservoirs, could be counted on to deliver only "521 miners' inches of
water per day for seven months, and the proposed ditch, 2094 inches daily for the same
period, making a total of 2615 inches." This sum was "the lowest probable average based
upon the last three years' experience; it would break down 10,460 cubic yards of gravel
every twenty-four hours, which, at fifteen cents a cubic yard, would give a daily gross
product of $1569 at a cost not to exceed $523, equivalent to a daily net profit of $1046,
or $190,372 per year of seven working months as a minimum available for dividends." This
figure could "be increased to $225,000 by large supplies of water from melting snows in
the months of May and June." During the twelve-month period following completion of the
dam and ditch, the "minimum net income of $190,000" could "be confidently assured."
Maynard observed that taking the present ditch as a basis of estimate, the new ditch of 22
121
miles may be built for $100,000, with a margin for unexpected contingencies." With "an
additional sum of $100,000 the dams and hydraulic appliances" could be supplied.126
In August 1889 the Osceola Gravel Mining Company was reorganized and its controlling
stock sold to the Osceola Placer Mining Company, a firm that recently had been
incorporated in New Jersey. The directors of the new firm were W.B. Kunhard and LA.
Harrison of New York and Benjamin Hampton of Salt Lake City. James H. Marriott was
named general superintendent and had charge of day-to-day operations of the Osceola
Gravel Mining Company which retained its identity.
Under the terms of the transaction nearly one half of the Osceola Gravel Mining Company's
stock remained in the hands of Salt Lake City investors, but controlling interest was now
in the hands of New York businessmen. The sum of $150,000 that was realized by the
Osceola Gravel Mining Company on the sale of stock to the new firm was set aside "for
the purpose of purchasing the water supplied by Mount Wheeler and carrying it to the
placer." The new company was capitalized at $5,000,000 with 500,000 shares, of which
80,000 were "held in the treasury to meet unforeseen contingencies, or to divide when the
necessity for holding has ceased."
The first undertaking of the newly-organized Osceola Gravel Mining Company was to be
construction of the East Ditch. According to the White Pine News of August 17, 1889, it
would "hustle the company to get the new ditch and reservoirs constructed in time for the
melting snows of 1890, but they intend to make the best stagger at it they can by putting
a thousand men on the work." After "the ditch, dams, reservoirs and hydraulic appliances"
had been provided and "sundry 'giants' turned loose at a gravel bank 150 feet high with
2,600 inches of water playing, a gross output of $300,000 a year" could be expected. If
no mistakes had been made in the calculations, the gravel bank would "yield at that rate
for fifty years."127
Construction of the East Ditch commenced in September 1889. On September 14 the
White Pine News reported that there were 200 men working on the ditch, and "the old
camp" was said to be assuming a lively air."128 One week later the newspaper stated:
The ranchers of Spring and Snake Valleys are having a good market for their
product at Osceola this year. It is expected that 1,000 men will be at work
there before [the] snow flies. The company is buying up all the produce, hay
and grain within reach.129
Lumber for the wooden flumes and bracing for a 600-foot tunnel to be drilled under the
drainage divide northwest of Strawberry Creek was hauled from sawmills near Mount
Moriah and in the South Fork of Big Wash and Baker Creek Canyon. In October the
company advertised for "about 20 good teams" to haul lumber from the Hendrie Sawmill
126. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Engineering and Mining Journal, XLIV (December
3, 1887), 420.
127. White Pine News, August 17, 1889.
128. White Pine News, September 14, 1889.
129. White Pine News, September 21, 1889.
122
at Mount Moriah to Lehman Creek for a cost of "$12 and $14 per thousand." At the same
time, the contractors advertised for fifty "good rock men."130
The ditch work created a beehive of bustling activity in Snake Valley. On November 23,
1889, for instance, the White Pine News reported that "Bro. A.S. Lehman, of the Wonderful
Cave, writes us that things are lively out his way." Several hundred men were "working
on the ditch at the head of Lehman Creek," three sawmills were "running with full crews,"
and "all the teams in the valley" were "hauling lumber."131
Work on the East Ditch continued until severe snowstorms in December virtually halted
construction. Flume construction, however, continued at intervals throughout the winter.132
The Osceola miners looked forward to the spring and summer of 1890 with enthusiasm.
On February 1 the Mining and Scientific Press reported:
The heavy fall of snow will give the Hydraulic M Co at Osceola a grand season.
Undoubtedly they will next spring and summer wash out a vast deal of gold. .
. . These placer mines will no doubt be of great assistance to the people of
White Pine county, and indeed to all in the eastern part of the State.133
The White Pine News echoed this sense of anticipation on February 8:
As soon as spring opens the Osceola Gravel Mining Company, with a full head
of water, will tear up the ground at a lively rate and produce the coming season
a rich golden harvest. Their operations will materially aid every industry in the
eastern portion of the county.
This enthusiasm, however, was somewhat dampened in early April. The newspaper warned
workingmen from going to Osceola, since there were "500 men in the camp now, many of
them out of work." The reason given for this problem was that the hydraulics had "not
started up yet."135
The East Ditch was completed, and water from Lehman Creek passed through to the
reservoir near Osceola's Dry Gulch on July 4, 1890. The total length of the ditch, including
flumes and tunnel, was 95,133 feet, or 18 miles and 93 feet. Along its north-northwesterly
course the ditch incorporated water from Lehman, Mill, Strawberry, Weaver and Sage
creeks. A headgate and rock dam were installed at Stella Lake to increase its storage
capacity and increase the summer flow of Lehman Creek. Total cost of the ditch's
construction was $108,222.65.
130. White Pine News, October 12, 1889. The tunnel was constructed under a contract let to W.I. Aiken of
Osceola. White Pine News, April 5, 1890.
131. White Pine News, November 23, 1889.
132. "Official Reports - Osceola Gravel Mining Company," Engineering and Mining Journal, LI (May 30, 1891),
630.
133. "Mining in 1889," Mining and Scientific Press, LX (February 1, 1890), 81.
134. White Pine News, February 8, 1890.
135. White Pine News, April 5, 1890.
123
The best and most complete description of the East Ditch and its associated components
is found in the May 30, 1891, issue of the Engineering and Mining Journal. The article
states:
The ditch portion is 82,891 ft. in length; its dimensions 4 ft. wide in the bottom.
2-1/2 ft. deep in solid ground, with sloping sides 1/2 to 1, or an angle of 22-
1/2°, and has a uniform grade of 14 ft. per mile, and a carrying capacity of over
2,500 miner's inches of water = 40,000,000 gallons per 24 hours; the excavated
material being placed on the lower side increases its capacity. Its cost, as per
the several contracts, was $58,307.86. The material excavated comprised
17,204 cu. yds. of gravel, including boulders and loose rock; 40,843 cu. yds.
of cement, required blasting or gadding; and 23,151 cu. yds. of solid rock, all
requiring blasting.
Of the main flumes there are 14 sections. These are located at such places
as were impracticable for ditch to be made, being on the side of the rocky and
precipitous mountains, especially in the Lehman Canon, where 3,768 ft. had to
be built. The longest single section is 2,808 ft., and the shortest 96 ft. The
whole length, however, aggregates 5,352 ft. The size is four ft. wide and four
ft. deep, with a uniform grade of 32 ft. per mile, much of which had to be
supported upon trestlework.
The drop flumes or chutes, of which there are six, vary in their dimensions
according to the vertical fall at their respective localities, the total length of these
being 6,258 ft., with a vertical fall of 1,352 ft. The whole length of the main
flumes and drop chutes is 11,610 ft., the total cost of which, including the four
houses for ditch tenders, each 14 ft. x 20 ft., fitted with bunks, tables, etc., 16
waste gates, timbers for trestle, stringers, and ties, was $21,494.05. The total
amount of lumber, which was yellow pine of first-class quality, used in the
flumes was 316,800 ft. (board measure), in addition to 28,240 linear ft. of hewn
timbers used for stringers, trestle posts, and ties, size varying from 8 to 12
inches in diameter.
The route of the ditch was shortened at least two miles by the excavation of a
tunnel through a projecting spur of the main mountain range. This is 632.5 ft.
long, 5 ft. wide, 6.5 ft. high, and has a grade of 4 ft. in its length. It is in fairly
solid granite except at the approaches, where the rock was somewhat
decomposed, requiring a few sets of timbers and lagging. The total cost of
excavating and timbering was $5,060.00
The total cost of the east ditch was $108,222.65. Of this amount the purchase
of Lehman's Creek, with ranch and improvements, absorbed $10,000;
engineering expenses, $6,221.99; excavating ditch, $58,307.86; flume
construction $21,494.05; tunnel, $5,060.00; and general expense account, which
includes teamsters, cooks, superintendent, etc. In addition to this, and properly
chargeable to the east-ditch account, was the work of cutting and draining a
small lake at the head of Lehman's Canon, putting in culvert and gate,
constructing cabin, etc., which cost $949.28.
At the mines the distributing reservoir was enlarged during March, 1890, by the
excavation of nearly 4,000 cu. yds. of cemented gravel and rock from the
interior and placing it upon the bank, thereby increasing its capacity over 50%,
the cost of which, together with the new gate tower and waste gate, was
$2,875. Two large-sized giants or monitors of the Hoskin-Marysville-California
124
patent, size No. 5, having 15-in. inlet and 8-in. nozzle butt, were added to the
plant. These, with two 18-in. water gates and deflectors, cost delivered $900.00.
Eleven hundred feet of large bedrock sluice was also constructed, 60 in. wide
and 35 in. deep. It is through this sluice that all the gravel from the present
workings passes, consequently it was necessary that it should not only be
strongly built and supported, but be absolutely tight in the bottom to prevent
loss of quicksilver and gold. The bottoms are selected lumber 1-3/4 in. thick,
planed, tongued, and grooved. The sides are doubled, the inner lining is 2-
in. plank. Upon the bottom is placed the riffle blocks; these are square timbers
12 in. x 12 in. x 12 in. placed in rows across the bottom, and divided by a 2-
in. strip, which leaves an aperture for the gold to settle in. The quantity of
lumber used per linear foot, including riffle blocks, was approximately 80 ft. and
cost over $3 per foot for labor and material. The total cost was $3,300.
In connection with the building of the new bedrock sluice, and chargeable to that
account, there was a tunnel driven through the north of the bedrock into the
deep channel, 135 ft. This tunnel greatly facilitates the working of that channel
and cost $1,225. It is 8 ft. wide and 7 ft. high and is in solid quartzite.
One set of under-currents was built, being placed in connection with the sluice
at a point 1,000 ft. below the head; it is 24 by 48 ft., divided into four
compartments, and has a grade of 1 in 12 ft. and cost $385.00
In addition, several minor improvements were made, such as the construction
of a small pipe line to furnish the water to a Pelton wheel for power purposes,
new buildings, and an electric lighting plant. Two arc lights of 2,000 candle
power were used, placed on the placer, enabling much more work to be done
in hydraulicking on the night shift than was previously done with other kinds of
lighting and at much less cost.
The article elaborated on the impact that the West and East ditches had made on Osceola
placer operations to date. It noted:
From measurements taken every 12 hours, morning and evening, it appears that
the volume of water passing the ditches during this period of 16 months was
147,725 miner's inches, of which 120,670 were from the west and 27,055 from
the east ditches. In repairing breaks, 8,400 inches were wasted, leaving total
water used in the mine 139,325 inches, the miner's inch being equivalent to
approximately 16,000 gallons every 24 hours.
A cross-section made of the ground washed up to November 30th, 1890,
showed that 225,876 cu. yds. had been broken from the high banks and passed
through the sluices during the season. Less than half of the superficial area of
the bedrock, upon which this gravel rested, had been cleaned, however. The
cleaned or creviced bedrock, therefore, represents, as per engineer's estimate,
that the gold from but 118,187 cu. yds. had been secured, the remainder being
in the crevices of the uncleaned bedrock. This will be better understood by
explaining that the bottom of the gravel banks, which average 105 ft. in height,
is from 100 to 250 ft. distant from the bedrock cuts, which conduct the gravel
to the sluices. These cuts vary in length, the present cut reaching 225 ft. above
the entrance to the main sluice at the head of the tunnel. All the gold taken
out during the past season came from the main sluice and the creviced portions
of the bedrock, lying in close proximity to it. The gold lying in the upper
portions of the cuts and along the foot of the high banks (100 ft.) still remains
125
covered with a few feet of gravel. The early frosts in November stopped all
bedrock cleaning.
There is difficulty in getting skilled gravel miners in Nevada, no mining of this
kind being done nearer than California. Consequently the company fell behind
with bedrock cleaning, which requires experienced men to facilitate it. No larger
nuggets than 7-1/2 ounces were found during the past season, but quite a
quantity weighing from 1/2 to 3 ounces. The total amount of the gold extracted
was $28,175; this was from 118,187 cu. yds. The estimated quantity from
which the gold was washed shows an average of nearly 24 cents per cu. yd.,
confirming the three former seasons' averages in the same channel. Owing
to the increased volume of water, the enlargement of the pipe line, hydraulic
giants, and the main sluice during the past season, the duty of the miner's inch
has been brought up nearer to its maximum, as is seen by comparison with
former seasons' work.
With the old sluice 32 in. x 30 in., using 1,000 to 1,100 miner's inches, the
average washing was 1.1 cu. yds. to the inch of water, while during the last
season through the new sluice 60 in. x 35 in., using 2,000 to 2,200 miner's
inches, the average was 1.62 cu. yds. to the inch of water. It is expected to
increase this to 2 cu. yds. next season, as the advantage of a larger volume
of water will then be had and less stoppages on account of waiting for sufficient
head in the reservoir to accumulate. It is the recurrence of these stoppages
that draw so heavily upon the power, for when the water slacks in the cuts and
sluices many hundred tons of gravel are left on the bottom, and it is this inert
mass that must first be started before fresh gravel can be brought from the
banks. The Osceola gravel, being quartz and quartzite, and very coarse, weighs
approximately 3,600 pounds per cu. yd. The actual mine-labor payroll for the
whole season, which includes sluice construction, was $11,450.66.
In 1891 the prospects of the Osceola Gravel Mining Company's holdings as well as the
prospects for the Osceola district were analyzed by the Nevada Surveyor-General and
State Land Register. His comments were:
In White Pine county the Osceola Gravel Mining company own very extensive
and valuable properties. This company has been operating at Osceola for
several years. It has expended a large sum of money in bringing water a
distance of 18-3/4 miles to its mines, and from information at hand the mines
are yielding a fair profit on the capital invested. The output of this company's
mines for the years 1889 and 1890 was $40,000 in value. The gold is often
found in large nuggets containing more or less quartz, and is also found in very
small fine pieces or scales. The new and long ditch of the company was
completed too late to be of any avail this season, but a plentiful supply of water
is assured for the future. About thirty-five men are employed by the company
from four to six months of the year.
136. "Official Reports - Osceola Gravel Mining Company," Engineering and Mining Journal, LI (May 30, 1891),
630-31. Construction drawings relating to the ditch may be seen on the following pages.
126
EAST DITCH CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS
^\\xx \v
127
SIDE VIEW OF FLUME
^^>;^g^^_J
Osceola Gravel Mining Company.
W*t&®
128
The hills above this company's mines are covered with quartz veins, showing
good prospects, and would prove to be good paying mines if the owners were
able to properly develop them.
There are quite a number of placer mines in the district worked with rocker,
sluice box and dry-wash machines that have in the years 1889-90 cleaned up
a sum total of about $10,000. Almost any of the side gulches will pay from one
dollar upwards per day to the man by the dry-wash process during the dry
months of the year. It is certain that better times are in store for the camp of
Osceola, when its quartz mines are properly looked after and developed.13
The first full year of placer operations at Osceola using the waters of both the East and
West ditches was 1891. That year hydraulic activity was begun on May 8, using a 2,000-
inch volume of water about seven hours daily. After May 20 operations commenced "full
blast almost throughout the 24 hours," using a 2,000-inch volume. Later on July 11, 1891,
the Engineering and Mining Record reported:
Gravel is being boomed off at a much greater rate than ever before, and
prospects are highly encouraging both for water and gold. The ditches hold
well; no accident to either has occurred, and cost of maintaining the east ditch
is very much less than anticipated. Bed rock cleaning was stopped when the
full supply of water began as it takes the present small force of men to attend
to both monitors, which are working most satisfactorily. Whenever the bedrock
is exposed, however, nuggets are picked up. On June 17 the mine was running
24 hours with 2,500 inches (40,000,000 gallons) water, and the amount was
increasing.138
On August 1, 1891, the Engineering and Mining Journal printed another article on the
business prospects and placer gold production of the Osceola Gravel Mining Company.
It observed:
We learn that the Osceola preferred stockholders have increased their holdings
by subscribing for an additional 33,000-shares, thus taking advantage of their
right to call stock within 12 months after the completion of the 18-mile canal.
The total holding in New York now amounts to 223,000 shares out of an issue
of 420,000, the balance of 80,000 shares still remaining in the treasury. For
over 60 days 2,500 24-hour inches have been brought into the mine, three
giants being in constant use day and night. The company is still keeping its
record as a nugget producer, nearly $5,000 in value having lately been picked
up, one nugget weighing 53 oz.139
Despite the initial glowing reports of the Osceola placer operations, however, gold
production did not meet the expectations of the East Ditch promoters. The gross yield of
137. Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register of the State of Nevada For The Years 1889 and
1890, pp. 35-36, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1891, 15th Session. See
Appendix K for the entry of the Osceola Gravel Mining Company in White Pine County tax assessment book for
1891.
138. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Engineering and Mining Journal, Lll (July 11,
1891), 55.
139. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Engineering and Mining Journal, Lll (August 1,
1891), 133. Also see "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Engineering and Mining Journal,
Lll (January 16, 1892), 117.
129
the Osceola Gravel Mining Company for the years 1890 and 1891 was only $16,190.67 and
$20,223, respectively.140
Beginning in 1892 the Osceola gold placer operations were hampered by periodic water
shortages, largely the result of a mild dry winter and leaking ditch wooden flumes. In
September of that year, for instance, the Engineering and Mining Journal reported that the
gold placers were "yielding well at present," but because "of the lack of water, operations
are being carried on under difficulties." But "for this drawback the placers, it is claimed,
would make a rich return."141 For a time in early 1894 the Osceola Gravel Mining Company
closed down its operations142 In July 1895 it was reported that the Osceola placer mines
had resumed operations, the "two canals which supply the hydraulics are in use and 100
men are employed."143 In August 1896, however, the White Pine News observed that water
"for mining purposes is said to be getting so scarce in Osceola that placers will have to
shut down." One month later the Engineering and Mining Journal noted that the placers
had "recently cleared up $12,030 from 24 days' work." There was "much rich gravel, but
no water in that vicinity."145
Intermittent placer operations continued at Osceola through the 1901 season. The previous
seven years had been mild dry winters, and the water supply in the ditches, depending
primarily on melting snow and springs, became inadequate to meet the needs of the
placers. Water theft, leaky wooden flumes, and legal battles over water rights contributed
to the curtailment of placer operations. By the turn of the century it was reported that the
East and West ditches combined could only provide about 100 miners' inches of water.146
The continuing fluctuations of the placer mines at Osceola were described by the
Engineering and Mining Journal in 1901. The periodical reported:
Drifting in the placers goes on steadily and dumps are accumulating for the
spring waters. Several dry placer machines are in use. The water for washing
is controlled by the Osceola Gravel Mining Company, which has 2 ditches from
15 to 20 miles long, bringing water from springs and streams in the Snake
Mountains. Insufficient rain and snowfall for the last 7 years has prevented the
company from operating its placers on an extensive scale, and water has been
sold to the smaller mines.
140. Report of the Director of the Mint Upon the Production of the Precious Metals in the United States During
the Calendar Year 1890 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1891), p. 161, and Report of the Director of the
Mint Upon the Production of the Precious Metals in the United States During the Calendar Year 1891 (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1892), p. 209.
141. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Engineering and Mining Journal, LIV (September
24, 1892), 304.
142. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Engineering and Mining Journal, LVII (February
17, 1894), 160.
143. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Engineering and Mining Journal, LX (July 13,
1895), 39.
144. White Pine News, August 15, 1896.
145. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Engineering and Mining Journal, LXII (September
19, 1896), 278.
146. White Pine News, May 5, 1904.
130
Because of the continuing water problems the Osceola placers produced only some
$10,000 worth of gold in 1901.147
In 1906, after the Osceola placer operations had been shut down for five years, H.S.
Woolley, a mining promoter from New York City, secured the holdings of the nearly defunct
Osceola Placer Mining Company and secured an option for water rights on Baker Creek.
Upon returning to New York, he succeeded in organizing the Nevada Amalgamated Mines
and Power Company with assets of $1,000,000. The new company planned to reconstruct
the West and East ditches, construct a large power plant on Baker Creek to furnish
electricity for operation of the hoists and reduction works, establish three new towns, build
a railroad spur from Ely to Osceola, and amass a large labor force to accomplish the work.
After several years, however, the venture proved to be unsuccessful and the project never
materialized.
Although the Osceola Gravel Mining Company operations received most of the publicity
given the district after the mid-1 880s other mining endeavors continued to play a significant
role in the district. While the East Ditch was being constructed in 1889, gold was
discovered four miles south of Osceola and west of Windy Peak by T. Boone Tilford,
James Stevens, and several partners. The men immediately staked out 200 acres of
ground. When news of the discovery reached Osceola, miners rushed to the area to find
that all available claims had been staked. In disgust they called the area "Hogum,"
because a few individuals had "hogged" all the mining property. Because of this monopoly
the settlement never became large. At the peak of its activity, the camp had a population
of less than 100 people, some shanties, a stone blacksmith shop, the Stevens house, and
a substantial two-story log house owned by the Tilford family.
At Hogum gold was extracted largely from surface alluvial deposits, but lode mining was
also conducted. In 1891, for instance, Tilford struck a rich limestone layer, now referred
to as the Hogum Bar. From one twenty-acre lode operation alone, centered on the
Stalwart Mine, more than $65,000 was recovered. While the Hogum area reached its
peak in the 1890s, the Gold Placer Mining Company worked claims adjoining the Stalwart
Mine as late as 1907, extracting "considerable gold by drifting in the bed of an ancient
river."149
There was considerable other lode mining activity in the Osceola district during the 1890s
and early 1900s. In 1891, for instance, the Osceola and Cumberland Mining Company,
which had been organized by Whitney and Company of Boston, undertook new
development work in each of its four mines - the Cumberland, Osceola, Royal Flush, and
Revenue. Good veins of gold ore were opened in each of the properties. The pay streak
in the Cumberland vein was said to be four feet wide, averaging $28 per ton in gold, and
147. "Osceola District, E. & M.J., 1901," File No. 335, Osceola Mining District, Nevada Mining District Collection,
Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
148. Read, White Pine Lang Syne, p. 154; Ely Mining Record, June 8, 1907; Weeks, "Geology and Mineral
Resources of the Osceola Mining District," in U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 340, p. 122; and Biennial Report of
the State Engineer, 1909-1910, p. 37, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1911,
25th Session, Vol. 2.
149. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1907, Part I - Metallic
Products (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1908), p. 383; Stella H. Day and Sebrina Ekins, comps.
Milestones of Millard: A Century of History of Millard County, 1851-1951 (Springville, Utah, Art City Publishing
Company, 1951), p. 47; Read, White Pine Lang Syne, pp. 160, 169; and Ely Daily Times, August 25, 1959.
131
that in the Osceola three feet wide, averaging $22 per ton.150 Later in December 1894 the
Salt Lake City-based Calcutta Gold Mining Company, which owned a number of claims in
the district, reported that a shaft had been driven 60 feet deep and shown "a vein of quartz
carrying free gold." The prospect was "so good that development work" was "to be
continued and a mill erected in the spring." In April 1896 the first lead-silver lode
discovery in the district was found some 1-1/2 miles south of Osceola. The small lode,
containing two feet of ore, was expected to produce "60% lead, 70 oz. silver and $6 in
gold."152 The Salt Lake & Nevada Gold and Silver Mining and Milling Company was
incorporated in late 1897 to exploit its Punxsutawney lode claim with mill site and water
rights in the district, and immediately began exploration "by a crosscut tunnel, in 400 ft., to
open three veins known to cross the property."153 During 1899 Salt Lake City capitalists
purchased and revitalized the Exchange, Crescent, and Golden Eagle mines, and Scranton,
Pennsylvania, interests reopened a 20-stamp mill at Osceola which processed fifty tons of
ore daily, the "material showing an average of $12 in gold per ton."154
In 1901 the Butterfield Gold Mining and Milling Company, a Maine-based corporation, was
established. The company purchased the "old mill and millsite" of the Nevada Gold
Development Company. Contracts were let to the Salt Lake Hardware Company for a new
10-stamp mill with three Cammett concentrators. The company owned five claims, some
of which were "fairly well developed, showing 10 ft. thick, with an average gold content of
$7."155
During the summer of 1904 the Pilot Knob G.M. Company of Monmouth, Oregon, began
construction of "a 2-stamp battery and concentrator" on Willard Creek in the southern
portion of the Osceola district. The mill was designed to test the ore in several gold-
bearing quartz mines owned by the company. While the mill was under construction pack
trains transported the ore from the mines to another mill some 2-1/2 miles distant. The
new mill, however, was never completed.156
150. "Osceola District, E. & M.J., 1891," File No. 335, Osceola Mining District, Nevada Mining district Collection,
Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
151. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Engineering and Mining Journal, LVIII (December
29, 1894), 614.
152. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Engineering and Mining Journal, LXI (April 25,
1896). 407.
153. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Engineering and Mining Journal, LXIV (December
4, 1897), 677.
154. "Mining Summary - Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, LXXVIII (February 18, 1899), 185; "Mining
Summary - Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, LXXVIII (May 13, 1899), 514; and "Mining Summary - Nevada,"
Mining and Scientific Press, LXXIX (July-December 1 899), 97.
155. "Osceola District, E. & M.J., 1901," File No. 335, Osceola Mining District, Nevada Mining District Collection,
Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
156. "Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, LXXXIX (August 13, 1904),
112, and "Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, LXXXIX (October 8, 1904),
247.
132
Mining activity in the Osceola district came to a virtual standstill by 1905. The district,
then referred to as Centennial, reported that no quartz mines were in production that year.
Only one placer operation by the White Rock Gold Mining Company was active.157
In October 1907 Geologist F.B. Weeks conducted a general reconnaissance of the Osceola
Mining District for the U.S. Geological Survey. This detailed study of the geology and
mineral resources of the district provides one of the best descriptions of its mining activities
during the early twentieth century.
Weeks made little mention of the East and West ditches but did comment on the drainage
lines in the district. He noted:
The principal drainage lines in the mining district are Dry Gulch and Mary Ann
Canyon and along them in their alluvial fans occur the most important placer
deposits. The stream beds are dry during most of the year. About one-fourth
mile above Osceola, near the wagon road, are several small springs and a
small stream flows from the mouth of the New Moon mine.
Weeks elaborated on the general mining conditions in the district:
The alluvial fan which spreads out from the mouth of Mary Ann Canyon, in the
southern part of the district, is locally known as Hogum. Here pay gravel was
found several years after the discoveries in Dry Gulch and the deposits have
been worked intermittently since that time.
Several attempts have been made to work the gold-quartz properties on a small
scale. Three mills of 5, 10, and 20 stamps have been erected and operated,
but none of them has been commercially successful. It is admitted that more
than 50 per cent of the values went down the gulch with the tailings. Since
field work was completed the 20-stamp mill has been partly repaired and a run
of several hundred tons of ore from the Cumberland mine has been made.
From all accounts that have been obtained, it seems safe to estimate that the
production of gold from this district approximates $2,000,000, of which about
one-tenth was probably derived from the quartz mines.
The slopes being steep, underground development is through tunnels, there
being not more than half a dozen shafts in the district. In one or two mines an
upper and lower tunnel have been connected by winzes. The quartzite is
exceedingly hard and no timbering is required in the tunnels. In winzes and
stopes a few stulls are all that is needed.
Some ore has been sacked and shipped to the smelters, but the greater part
has been locally milled. Stamping and amalgamation constitute the principal
method of treating the gold quartz. A small cyanide plant was constructed
several years ago but was abandoned, apparently before receiving a satisfactory
trial.
The Boston and Nevada Mining and Milling Company employs half a dozen men
and about the same number are engaged from time to time in doing
assessment work for nonresidents. The average wage for miners is $3.50 per
day of eight hours.
157. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1905 (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1906), p. 274.
133
All the mines and placers have been located by prospectors and working
miners. No extensive consolidations have been made and the camp remains
an aggregate of small mines and prospects on which, with the possible
exception of the Osceola placers, but little outside money has been expended.
The ores so far discovered have not been of high enough grade to attract
lessees.
Weeks concluded his study of the district by noting that its lode deposits were known to
be extensive. All of them carried gold, but their "values" were irregularly distributed "along
the fissure zones." Systematic and extensive prospecting was needed to determine the
average value of the lodes. According to Weeks, the average product of the lodes
appeared certain to be "a low-grade ore which must be worked at a small cost and in large
quantity to be profitable." As many other analysts of the district had concluded, Weeks
stressed the water needs of Osceola:
Water for milling purposes and placer mining can be obtained from the several
creeks heading around Wheeler Peak, which are also available for the
generation of electricity. As it will require the waters of all these creeks to fully
develop the resources of the district there should be such a combination of
interests as would permit the development of the water and power for the use
of the various mining companies. Future development and prosperity depend
on a concentration of local interests on a basis that will attract capital.158
During 1908 the total output of the Osceola district was valued at $5,137, of which the
placers produced $4,073 in gold and $19 in silver. Only 143 tons of ore were produced
from lode mines, yielding $1,041 in gold and $4 in silver. The quartz producers were the
Boston Nevada Mining Company, the Black and Weeks mines, and the Pilot Knob Mining
and Milling Company, the latter having a small prospecting mill with a concentrator. The
placers were all drift mines operated by the Gold Bar Placer Mining Company, Osceola
Company, Blue Gravel Placer Company, and Osceola Leasing Company. The Boston
Nevada, which owned 160 acres of placer ground (Golden Ledge Placer Mine) at Hogum,
contracted with Thomas Rockhill for a 100-foot shaft to prospect some of the rich placer
deposits such as had been found "in the zone near the mouth of Mary Ann Canyon."159
During the winter of 1908-09 the Amalgamated Nevada Mines Company, owned by James
H. Marriott, leased its placer holdings on Dry Creek at Osceola to miners. The men
tunneled and drifted "in the gravel beds all winter, piling up placer dirt to be washed with
the freshet of water that comes with spring weather." In April 1909 the company employed
"a few men on Baker creek, laying a pipe-line to carry water to operate an electric
generator."160
158. Weeks, "Geology and Mineral Resources of the Osceola Mining District," U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin
340, pp. 117-33.
159. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1908, Part I - Metallic
Products (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1909), p. 505; "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine
County," Mining and Scientific Press, XCVII (July 4, 1908), 9; "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine
County," Mining and Scientific Press, XCVII (July 11, 1908), 38; and "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine
County," Mining and Scientific Press, XCVII (August 1, 1908), 141.
160. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, XCVIII (April 17,
1909), 539.
134
The total yield of the Osceola district in 1909 was $5,977 in gold and $44 in silver, the
product of two lode and four placer mines. Several tons of ore were treated in an
"arrastre" at the Black Horse Mine, and ore from the Gem group was treated in a 5-
stamp amalgamation mill.161
During the summer of 1910 the Amalgamated Mines Company installed a new mill near
Osceola. The mill was constructed under the supervision of R.L. Coulthard, a millwright for
the Taylor Engineering Company that had the contract for the erection of the mill.
During 1912 the Osceola district produced 233.42 ounces of gold, 104 ounces of silver, and
3 tons of concentrates, containing gold and a small quantity of lead and copper. These
totals resulted from treatment of 332 tons of ore at gold and silver mills, one of which had
been recently constructed by the Boston-Nevada Company.163
In the Pilot Knob area scheelite claims were located in late 1915 by A.D. Meyers, William
J. Stewart, K.C. Davis, and Charles Gaby of Ely. The Independent Tungsten Mining
Company was organized by Duncan MacVichie, W. Armstrong, and T. Giles of Salt Lake
City to work the claims during the winter.164 By April 1916 a mining camp was established
on Willard Creek, and plans were laid to construct a mill "as soon as the condition of the
roads" permitted transportation.165
In May 1916 the Mining and Scientific Press reported that the Independent Tungsten
Company was employing "about 50 men on development and construction on a 30-ton
mill" at the Pea Ridge Mine. A large compressor-plant was being installed at No. 1 adit
for machine-drills." The mine had "a strong shoot of scheelite in a number of places." The
company promised to "become one of the most important producers along the range."166
With the decline in price and market for tungsten, mining activity for that commodity
decreased quickly. In June it was reported that the mill had been started and made a
short run, but it did not have "sufficient power for the crusher and elevators."167 By August
the company had closed its $40,000 mill indefinitely.168
161. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1909, Part I - Metals
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1911), p. 430, and Stuart, Nevada's Mineral Resources, pp. 99-100.
162. "Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CI (August 20, 1910),
255-56.
163. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1912, Part I - Metals
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1913), pp. 816-17.
164. "The Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXI (December 11,
1915), 908.
165. "Review of Mining - Ely, Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (April 1, 1916), 485.
166. "Review of Mining - Ely, Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (May 20, 1916), 762.
167. "The Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (June 24, 1916),
958.
168. The Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXI II (August 12,
1916), 253.
135
During World War I phosphate or bat guano was discovered in the Osceola district. About
1917 this commodity was discovered at Rose Cave, more popularly known as Bat Cave,
on the west slope of the Snake Range. Some nine years later in 1926 a 170-foot tunnel
was driven from the hillside below the natural opening into the lowest part of the cave to
extract the guano.169
Small quantities of gold and silver ore were mined and milled at Osceola between 1915
and 1920, but no major operations were undertaken.170 In July 1920 it was reported that
Clyde Tilford and his brother found "some good-sized nuggets" while "placer mining at the
old camp of Osceola."171 That same month four "feet of silver-lead ore of commercial
grade" was discovered "in a crosscut from the main working shaft" of the Lucky Boy Mining
Company near Osceola, and development was begun with a shaft and 350-foot tunnel.
Several tons of ore were milled from the Sunrise group of claims that produced "bullion by
amalgamation."173
Mining activity increased in the Osceola district during 1921. In February it was reported
that "gold ore assaying from $50 to $60 has been found on the Crescent claims" and was
being worked by James and Jack Merritt. The ore was opened in a winze from the main
tunnel.174 In November Baird & Tilford Bros, shipped a "bar of gold bullion resulting from
the milling of a small lot of $80 to $90 ore," the ore coming from an adit that had "followed
the vein for 240 ft." The ten-stamp Marriott Mill was treating "ore averaging $40 per ton
in gold."175 All told, the district treated 113 tons of ore in 1921, "producing gold bullion
which contained a little silver."176
During the remainder of the 1920s the Osceola district produced varying amounts of gold
and silver. In 1922 it was reported that a "large quantity of gold bullion" was recovered
from ore mined from the Sunrise group, and a two-stamp mill was operating on the
property. Placer output for the year consisted "of bullion from the Dry Gulch and Fifth
Decade properties and small lots from operators of unknown claims."177 The following year
placer mines operated by the Tilford brothers "resulted in the production of bullion having
169. Church, Mining Districts and Mineral Resources of Nevada, p. 253, and Nevada Bureau of Mines and
Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, p. 61.
170. See, for instance, U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1915, Part I - Metals
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1917), p. 653, and U. S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the
United States, 1918, Part I - Metals (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1921), p. 260.
171. "News By Mining Districts - Nevada," Engineering and Mining Journal, CX (July 24, 1920), 186.
172. "News By Mining District - Nevada," Engineering and Mining Journal, CX (July 31, 1920), 235, and Walter
Harvey Weed, International Edition, The Mines Handbook (Tuckahoe, New York, The Mines Handbook Company,
1922), p. 1,244.
173. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1920, Part I - Metals (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1922), p. 336.
174. "The Mining Summary - Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, CXXII (February 26, 1921), 305.
175. "Review of Mining - Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, CXXIII (November 19, 1921), 717.
176. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1921, Part I - Metals (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1924), p. 396.
177. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1922, Part I - Metals (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1925), p. 338, and Ely Daily Times, May 5, 1922.
136
a fineness of 0.85 in gold and .145 in silver."178 Little production was reported in 1924 and
1925, the placers yielding a mere $395 in gold and silver during the latter year.179 In 1926
the Woodman Mining Company, which owned a five-stamp mill, conducted "1,000 feet of
development," and at a tunnel was driven 875 feet at the American property."180
Mining activity increased in the Osceola district during 1928. A ten-stamp Straub mill,
equipped for amalgamation and treatment of eight tons of ore a day, was operated at the
Lassie Jean Mine by the Nickolson Mining & Milling Company. The gold mine consisted
of "an inclined shaft sunk 130 feet on a vein dipping about 45°." Placer mining operations
were conducted on the Hard Pickings and Osceola Fraction claims. The Osceola Fraction,
on the "west side of Mount Wheeler," was worked "by drifting and dry washing or by
sluicing when there was enough water." The method of reaching the gravel was "by shaft
sunk 30 or 40 feet to bedrock." The gravel was hoisted by gasoline engine, and the waste
rock was removed "by a combination of blower and riffles." The material caught in the
riffles was panned.181 In 1929 the Nickolson Mining & Milling Company treated 38 tons of
free gold ore from the Woodman Mine in its amalgamation mill, producing gold and silver
bullion amounting to $2,1 95.182
Desultory mining operations continued in the Osceola district during the early 1930s. Five
placers and one lode mine in the district produced gold and silver bullion valued at $6,302
in 1930.183 The following year five placer operations and two lode mines in the district
"reported 18 tons of ore, $6,604 in gold, and 67 ounces of silver, valued together at
$6,623."184 In 1932 three lode and seven placer mines produced 674.92 ounces of gold
and 190 ounces of silver for a total value of $14,006 ($10,467 from placers).185
During 1932 the U.S. Bureau of Mines sent a field team through the Nevada mining areas
to assess their condition. At Bald Mountain the team met a group of five placer
prospectors from Ely who had lost their jobs when the copper mines closed. The miners
stated
that about 100 men were now placer mining at Osceola. Some are working on
the west side, others on the east side of the mountain. Water is plentiful, and
178. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the Unites States, 1923 (Washington, Government Printing
Office, 1927), p. 512.
179. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1925, Part I - Metals (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1928), p. 696, and Ely Record, May 2, June 13, 1924.
180. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1926, Part I - Metals (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1929), p. 555.
181. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1928, Part I - Metals (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1931), p. 475.
182. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1929, Part I - Metals, p. 670.
183. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1930, Part I - Metals (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1933), pp. 551-52.
184. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1931, Part I - Metals (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1934), p. 630.
185. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1932-33 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1933), pp.
133-34, and U.S. Bureau of Mines, Statistical Appendix to Minerals Yearbook, 1932-33 (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1934), p. 249.
137
sluice boxes are used. Fairly good results are obtained, the men average from
$1 .00 to $5.00 per day in recovered gold. A royalty of as much as 50 per cent
is said to be exacted by some of the claim owners, which probably deters more
men from entering the district.186
Two of the placer operations that were worked in 1932 were the Weaver Creek and
Summit Diggings areas. An attempt was made to work the gravels adjacent to Weaver
Creek by sluicing. The gravel was excavated and transported to the sluice by a small
dragline scraper. Operations were hampered, however, by large boulders and water on the
bedrock and legal battles with ranchers below the placers over water rights. Considerable
excitement was created by reports of placer gold discoveries at the Summit Diggings near
the crest of the divide several miles above Osceola, but after a short period of prospecting,
it "was found that the ground did not come up to expectations, and the diggings were
abandoned."187 As a result of the continuing nationwide depression, however, the total
value of gold and silver production in the district soon declined to $6,778 in 1933 and
$8,440 in 1934.188
With an increase in the price of gold mining activity for that commodity increased throughout
Nevada during 1935. Water shortages, however, continued to plague the Osceola district,
and the yield from placers was small.189 The Osceola Gold Mining Corporation engaged
in considerable sampling, prospecting, and development work, including the installation of
a power shovel on its placer ground. The company's holdings consisted of the
consolidation of nineteen separate placer claims on some 4,000 acres north of Hogum.
Despite the development work, however, no ore was produced.190
During 1934-35 the Hampton Placer Mine, covering 417.74 acres of patented ground in Dry
Gulch and owned by W.N. Bowen, was bonded to the Wagner Gold Placer Company.
Edgar R. Wagner of Las Vegas, Nevada, was the principal stockholder of the firm. A
gravel treatment plant costing $11,000 was built for the operation. The work at the
Hampton Placer was described by U.S. Bureau of Mines Engineer William O. Vanderburg:
The old workings in the upper portion of Dry Gulch was sampled by taking 174
cubic yards of gravel in 1 -cubic-foot lots from several of the old shafts on the
property. These samples ranged from 17 cents to $8.77 per cubic yard from
surface to bedrock and averaged $1.32 per cubic yard. The shafts sampled
ranged from 7 to 54 feet deep. The average depth of 124 holes was 26-1/2
feet to bedrock. Sampling by drilling at Osceola is impracticable, as the
quartzite boulders in the alluvium carry values in free gold up to $1.20 per ton
and this gold would vitiate drill samples.
186. "N. Nevada Field Trip (1932), A.M. Smith & C. Stoddard," File No. 335, Osceola Mining District, Nevada
Mining District Collection, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
187. William O. Vanderburg, "Placer Mining In Nevada," University of Nevada Bulletin, XXX (May 15, 1936),
172.
188. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Statistical Appendix to Minerals Yearbook, 1934 (Washington, Government Printing
Office, 1935), p. 24, and U.S. Bureau of Mines, Statistical Appendix to Minerals Yearbook, 1935 (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1936), p. 112.
189. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1935, p. 272.
190. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1936 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1936), p. 310.
138
The gravel plant consists of two dragline scrapers, each driven by a 75-hp.
Waukesha gasoline engine, and a washing plant made by the Pioneer Gravel
Equipment Manufacturing Company of Milwaukee, Wis.
The gravel is hauled to the washing plant by one of the dragline outfits and is
discharged into a hopper below the surface of the ground. Above the hopper
is a grizzly made of 5/8 x 3-inch strap iron with 3-inch openings. From the
hopper, the gravel is fed to an inclined conveyer belt 24 inches wide and 70
feet long, which discharges into the trommel. The trommel is 42 inches in
diameter, 16 feet long, and is equipped with a punched-plate screen having 5/8-
and 1-inch holes. Oversize from the trommel is discharged into a 21 -cubic-
yard steel bin below, and from the bin it is discharged over a slide to the side
of the machine. From the side of the machine the oversize is transported by
the other dragline scraper to the waste dump on the side of the hill.
The trommel undersize, constituting about 50 percent of the material mined, is
discharged by gravity to a sluice box 50 feet long, 2 feet wide, 10 inches deep
and sloping 1-1/2 inches per foot. Riffles in the sluice are made of 1 x 3-inch
boards spaced 3 inches apart and built in 5-foot sections.
The management states that the plant operated a few weeks in 1935 and
during this period treated some 3,000 cubic yards of gravel averaging 69-1/2
cents per cubic yard. The gravel treated consisted mainly of tailings from
former operations. The plant closed in October for the winter because of water
shortage.191
While work was proceeding on the Hampton Placer some 25 men were working other
placer deposits in the Osceola district by small-scale hand methods. Most of these were
working in the Hogum area on ground owned by T. Boone Tilford. Royalty payments on
Tilford ground varied from 25 to 35 percent of the gross returns. According to Vanderburg,
the pay gravel was "removed by drift mining and hoisted either by hand windlasses or small
power hoists." When water was available in the spring the gravel was sluiced, and during
the summer months hand-powered dry washers were generally used to recover the gold.
The gravel sometimes had to be dried before it could be treated using the dry washing
method. Sheet iron stoves placed on rocks were employed for this purpose, and
sagebrush was used for fuel.
One of the principal miners in the Hogum area during this period was William Trent. He
recovered $7,500 in gold with a G.B. portable placer machine. The machine handled
about two cubic yards per hour with a water consumption of seventy gallons per cubic yard.
Water for placering "was pumped to the ground through two miles of 2-inch pipeline with
a Gould triplex pump, size 4 by six inches, belt driven by a 12-hp. Fairbanks-Morse
gasoline engine."192
Mining operations in the Osceola district expanded considerably in 1936 and the years
following. In November 1936, for instance, the Engineering and Mining Journal reported
that "lode and placer mines of the Osceola district" were "again becoming centers of
activity." Eastern Nevada Mines, Ltd., an association of three men, was providing
"equipment to mine and ship high-grade gold ore from a wide zone of shattered, gold-
bearing quartzite exposed along the crest of a ridge above the placer area." A power
191. Vanderburg, "Placer Mining in Nevada," 169-70.
192. Ibid.
139
shovel was in operation.193 That year the district produced gold and silver and small
amounts of lead and copper valued at $43,209. 194
After decline in the total value of gold and silver production to $33,412 in 1937, mining
activity in the Osceola district resumed with vigor.1 In 1938 more than $109,000 in gold
and silver was produced, the Nevada Tex Mining Company being the major lode producer
from its Gilded Age and Woodman mines and the Placers Recoverv Company, operator of
the Hampton hydraulic mine, the leading producer of placer gold. In 1939 twelve lode
and three placer mines produced $222,869 worth of gold and silver, the principal lode
producers being the Gilded Age, Golden Eagle, and Lassie Jean mines. The Venture Gold
Syndicate constructed a 15-ton amalgamation-concentration mill at the latter mine during
the year, and the Placers Recovery Company "hydraulicked gravel" at the Ghost Walk and
Transit mines.197 The peak year of production in the district was 1940 when thirteen lode
and three placer mines produced 7,012 ounces of gold, 5,573 ounces of silver, and 1,500
pounds of lead valued at $249,458, the principal mines being the Gilded Age, Golden
Eagle, and Sunshine.198 Thereafter, the value of production for the district declined to $
206,308 in 1941 and $120,262 in 1942.199
Gold mining operations were largely terminated at Osceola in October 1942 when the War
Production Board issued Gold Mining Limitation Order L-208 closing down all "non-
essential" gold mines to provide more manpower and equipment for the war effort. Thus,
with the exception of some tungsten ore mining at the Dirty Shirt, activity in the Osceola
district remained idle until 1945 when three lode (the Gilded Age being the principal one)
and one placer mine produced 633 ounces of gold, 256 ounces of silver, and 6,000 pounds
of lead for a total value of $22,853.200
The aforementioned tungsten mining operations were conducted on the Dirty Shirt property
three miles south of Osceola during the early part of World War II. The tungsten deposits
had been located by Don Beck in 1927, and J.R. Henry of Ely recognized the "heavy spar"
193. "News of the Industry - Nevada," Engineering and Mining Journal, CXXXVII (November, 1936), 582.
194. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1936 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1938), p. 372.
195. Jbid., p. 376.
196. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1939 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1939), pp. 402,
413. The Gilded Age and Woodman mines were technically in the nearby Sacramento Mining District, but their
production totals were figured in with those of the Osceola district.
197. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1940 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1940), pp. 384,
395.
198. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, Review of 1940 (Washington, Government Printing Office,
1941), pp. 393, 401.
199. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1941 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1943), p. 403
and U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1942 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1943), p. 429.
200. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1945 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1947), pp. 415,
420. Fire destroyed the entire town of Osceola in 1 943 with the exception of the Marriott general store and home.
Some sources state the fire occurred in 1948. Ely Record, March 10, 1950; Nell Murbarger, Ghosts of the Glory
Trail (Palm Desert, California, Desert Magazine Press, 1956), p. 160; and Barry A. Price, "An Evaluation of Lower
Osceola Historic Site (26 WP 1674), White Pine County, Nevada," Prepared for Bureau of Land Management, Ely
District, Under Contract No. NV 040-CT5-001, August 1985, p. 13.
140
as scheelite the following year and acquired the property. During 1929-33 the claims were
controlled through bond and lease by J. Benjamin Parker who mined and milled about five
tons of high grade scheelite concentrate. During 1941-42 production amounted to 90 units
of tungstic trioxide from 82 tons of ore, and in 1943-43 thirty units of tungstic trioxide were
produced from 15 tons.201
Gold production in the Osceola district fluctuated during the post-World War II years. In
1946 the Gilded Age Mine, operated by the Gilded Age Mining Company, became the
ninth-leading gold producing mine in Nevada.202 The following year three mines in the
district produced $11,126 worth of gold, silver, copper, and lead. The Gilded Age was the
principal mine, producing 485 tons of gold ore containing 281 ounces of gold and 135
ounces of silver.203 One lode and two placer mines produced $46,336 worth of gold and
silver in 1948, virtually all of which was mined in the Gilded Age.204
Total production values in the Osceola district declined to $28,989 in 1949 and $25,720 in
1950. During the latter year R.H. States & Hazel Green worked the Mary Ann placer drift
mine, washing 110 cubic yards of gravel that yielded 35 ounces of gold and 6 ounces of
silver. The Graham Development Corporation shipped 518 tons of ore containing 584
ounces of gold and 257 ounces of silver to a smelter from the Golden Eagle claim.
After several years of relative inactivity, mining operations in the Osceola district increased
during 1954. The U.S. Bureau of Mines reported on these activities:
Hemet Milling & Processing Co. shipped dump material from the Gilded Age
mine to the McGill Smelter for flux. The material contained some gold and
silver. Edward V. Abott worked gravels from the Gold Nugget and North Star
by drifting, and produced gold and silver. Mrs. Bonita Tilford worked the Three
Sisters tungsten placer and shipped concentrate to an ore buyer. L.T. Tilford
shipped a small quantity of tungsten ore from the Shipper underground mine to
a custom mill, and R.D. Tilford developed tungsten ore at the Big Foot claim in
1954.
Most of the tungsten ores from the Osceola and nearby Sacramento and Black Horse
districts were milled at Goody's Mill several miles east of Sacramento Pass.206
In 1958 a survey of the Osceola district by the U.S. Bureau of Mines found no active
mines. There were, however, 239 placer claims recorded in the White Pine County
Courthouse, of which 14 were on Lehman Creek and 20 on Weaver Creek. There were
four principal mines in the district:
201. Milton Benjamin Parker, "The Dirty Shirt Group of Scheelite Mining Claims," ca. 1933, and "Dirty Shirt,"
USBM Unpubl. Data 1963, File No. 335, Osceola Mining District, Nevada Mining District Collection, Nevada Bureau
of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
202. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1946, pp. 1,476 and 1,493.
203. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1947, pp. 1,470 and 1,475.
204. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1948, pp. 1,559 and 1,564.
205. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1949, p. 1,532, and U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook,
1950, p. 1,549 and 1,554.
206. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1954, Volume III, Area Reports, p. 706.
141
Gilded Age Mine
This gold mine is located in sec. 13., T. 14 N., R. 67 E. It is developed by two
shafts 300 and 800 feet deep with levels at 300, 600, 700, 800 feet.
Underground openings, drifts, raises, and winzes total 15,000 feet.
Dirtv Shirt Mine
This tungsten mine is located in sees. 23, 24, 25, T. 14 N., R. 67 E.
Developed by 96 foot inclined shaft, small stamps and a 500 feet adit at a
lower level.
Skipper Tungsten Mine
Located in sec. 19, T. 14 N., R. 68 E., on the west side of Ohio canyon which
is a tributary to Willard canyon. Developed by two adits 30 feet and 130 feet
long and two shafts 20 and 50 feet deep.
Cumberland Gold Mine
Sampling and evaluating of placer gold in this mine was conducted in 1958.
The placers are in Mary Ann Canyon sec. 24, T. 14 N., R. 67 E.
The bureau concluded that reserves in the lode mines were depleted, and sparse placer
grounds remained. It was thought doubtful that the gold producing areas would again come
into production.207
According to a study prepared by the Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology in 1976, the
Osceola district produced a total value of $3,342,610 from its placer and lode mines
between 1872 and 1959. Of this total, nearly $2,000,000 was produced prior to 1901. A
copy of recorded production for the district as noted in the study may be seen on the
following page.208
207. "Report on the Investigations of Mineralization In and Adjacent to the Humboldt National Forest, Mt.
Wheeler Area," November 5, 1958, pp. 2-3.
208. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, pp. 61-62. Also see "Nevada's Metal and
Mineral Production," by Couch and Carpenter, pp. 148, 151-52.
142
Osceola Mining District, Summary Of Recorded Production Through 1959.
[0, none; *, estimated, partly estimated, or computed; blank, figures not available]
Productive
years
Ore, old tailings Total value Gold
old or treated when sold'
(short tons) $ (ounces)
Silver
(ounces)
Copper
(pounds)
Lead
(pounds)
Zinc
(pounds)
Tungsten
(short ton
units)
Guano
LODE2
1872-1901
1902-1959
54,500*
197,177*
1.221.634*
9,470*
32.102
119,161
0
1,344
0
112.422
0
11.832
0
550
0
0
Totals
1,418,811*
41,572
120,161
1,344
112,422
11,832
550
0
PLACER (Johnson, 1972)
1877-1901
1902-1923
1934-1942
1943-1959
1,774,595*
149,204*
1,923,799*
85,500*
3,253
3,125
215
92,093*
9,000*
290*
200*
0
0
0
_0
0
0
0
0
_0
0
0
0
0
_0
0
0
0
0
0
Few
0
Totals
9,490*
Totals
Lode and Placer2
3,342,610*
133,665*
129,651*
1,344
112,422
11,832
>559
1 Excluding tungsten, guano.
2 Including Woodman (Eagle) and Gilded Age mines in the Sacramento district.
143
In recent years small-scale placer operations have been conducted in the Osceola district.
During a mineral investigation of the area by the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1981 it was noted
that placer gold was being mined on Weaver Creek. A large backhoe and bulldozer were
being used to feed a trommel, and several combinations of screens and riffles were being
treated.209
In November 1983 the Intermountain Pay Dirt reported that Continental Gold, Inc., a unit
of the Tucson-based Continental Materials Corporation, expected "to produce about 3,000
ounces of gold at its Osceola placer mine" in 1 984. Equipment was on the site and was
to be ready for full-scale production by mid-April, and a season of 7-1/2 to 8 months was
anticipated. During 1983 the company had run about 15,000 yards of placer gravel through
the set-up," and in 1984 it expected to "run some 150,000 yards, carrying about 0.02
ounces per yard of gold." While the company sank several churn drill holes, most of the
sampling was done by trenching. It was found that the area contained "considerable low-
grade placer material, especially at depth," but the company was "not encouraged by the
grade in the deep gravels." The drilling hit water at 350 feet and bedrock at 400 feet.
Although there was "gold all the way down," its value "was only about 50 cents a yard."
At the time, the six-man operation had a front-end loader and a backhoe loading into a 12-
1/2-yard dump to move ore to the processing site.210
TUNGSTEN (HUB, LINCOLN, SHOSHONE) MINING DISTRICT
Location
The Tungsten Mining District, sometimes commonly referred to as the Hub district, is nearly
coextensive with T. 13 N., R. 68 E., on the west slope of the Snake Range. It includes
Wheeler and Baker peaks along the summit of the range on the east edge of the district,
and the Hub Mine Basin near the center. The hubnerite-scheelite bearing veins of the Hub
Mine area are the only deposits in the district known to have been productive.211
History
As early as 1885 prospectors noticed prominent outcrops in the veins of white quartz and
brownish gray granite in the vicinity of what would later become the Tungsten Mining
District. Samples of the unknown mineral were sent to a prominent reduction works in
California for chemical analysis. At the time a chemist reported the specimens to be
"specular hematite." Later in January 1899 other prospectors, refusing to accept the
mineral as one of an iron compound, sent samples to Denver for analysis and learned that
the mineral was hubnerite and valuable as a source of tungstic acid.
In January 1900 the White Pine News published an article reporting the discovery of
hubnerite and establishment of the Tungsten Mining District. The newspaper stated:
209. U.S. Bureau of Mines, "Mineral Investigation of the Wheeler Peak Roadless Area," MLA 56-83, 1983, pp.
4-5.
210. Intermountain Pay Dirt, November 1983.
211. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, p. 79. Further information on the geology and
character of the district's ore deposits may be seen in Fred D. Smith, "The Osceola, Nevada, Tungsten Deposits,"
Engineering and Mining Journal, LXXIII (March 1, 1902), 304-05, and F.B. Weeks, "Tungsten Deposits in the Snake
Range, White Pine County, Eastern Nevada," U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 340, Contributions to Economic
Geology, 1907, Part I, pp. 263-70.
144
The past year has witnessed the discovery of hubnerite in White Pine county,
Nevada, on what is known as Snake range, at the base of Wheeler's Peak, and
the establishing of a new mineral district called Tungsten mining district,
covering an area of ten square miles. The camp of Tungsten is about twelve
miles south of Osceola. Tungsten ore in the form of hubemite was first
discovered in January, 1899, by Charles W. Gaby, who made the first location
for himself and partners, W.D. Burtin and George Doyle, who with R.A. Millick
and J.H. Marriott, formed the district which now has thirty claims recorded, all
carrying the same mineral. The country rock is granite and quartzite and the
ore occurs in fissures from a few feet to ten feet or more. On one of the first
locations made the vein crops out for a 1000 feet and is from two to ten feet
thick, showing mineral scattered throughout. Over ten tons of float has been
gathered below this croppings which carries 50 per cent hubnerite, several
pieces weighing 500 lbs. or more being nearly pure metal. On the extension
of this vein is one rich chute which crops 75 feet and 2 feet thick and over one-
half its bulk is almost solid material. Boulders weighing a ton are scattered
below this, and several tons have been gathered for shipment. This one easily
concentrates from 65 to 72 per cent of tungistic acid, which is worth in the
Eastern market from $4 to $5 per unit. Tungistic acid is used in the
manufacture of steel, principally for fine tool steel, and as an alloy for tempering
large gun barrels, etc. The principal market is in Europe, although a few firms
in the United States use it. Most of the claims of this district are under bonds
to Eastern parties, who will next spring put in a large concentrating plant, since
this ore will concentrate rapidly, and save much in hauling to Frisco, Utah, the
nearest railway point, a distance of ninety miles. The district has the advantage
of good roads plenty of timber and water, hence is blessed with advantages for
putting in a concentrating plant near the mines. This being a new mineral for
the West results will be watched with much interest by mining men.212
National mining journals soon began publishing accounts of the new district. In May 1 899
the Mining and Scientific Press reported:
Ten days ago a location was made south of Osceola by Gaby, Benton & Doyle
of Salt Lake on a mineral known as hubnerite, used in the manufacture of steel.
The vein is 2 to 4 feet wide and has been exposed for 400 feet on the line of
the ledge and has granite walls.213
The Engineering and Mining Journal carried a different version of the discovery of the
hubnerite deposits. That periodical reported that an "alleged very rich vein of tungsten at
Wheeler's Peak" had been discovered. The vein was "tied up under bond by Messrs. R.H.
Terhune and S.E. Crager of Salt Lake City." The ledge was "2 to 8 ft. wide, traceable for
2,000 ft." The pay seam was "40% wolframite" and much of the ore carried "70%."214
During 1 900 a shipment of some ten tons of concentrates, carrying from 65 to 70 percent
tungstic trioxide, was made from the district. The owners then sold their claims for $3,000
212. White Pine News, January 11, 1900.
213. "Mining Summary - Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, LXXVIII (May 20, 1899), 539.
214. "Osceola District, E. & M.J., 1899," File No. 335, Osceola Mining District, Nevada Mining District Collection,
Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
145
to James H. Marriott of Osceola, who had previously located the surrounding claims
showing veins of the mineral.215
In August 1900 Geologist F.B. Weeks of the U.S. Geological Survey made a survey of the
new mining district. His field reconnaissance resulted in the following observations:
Prior to that time [August 1900] a small amount of ore had been gathered from
the debris of the surface below the outcrop of the vein, and had been shipped
in ton lots. The mineral was also seen to be disseminated through the loose
soil of the mountain slopes.
At the time of this examination a small gasoline plant with crusher and jigging
apparatus was being installed so that shipment by the carload is now possible.
The vein in which the hubnerite occurs cuts across the country rock, which is
a rather coarse porphyritic granite of the usual quartz-mica-hornblende variety.
The granite has a rudely bedded structure, parallel to that of the overlying
Cambrian quartzite which dip 20° to 25° SSW. The strike of the vein is N. 68°
E.f and the dip is 65° NW. The main vein is normally about 3 feet in width.
In places it pinches to a few inches in thickness, but resumes its usual width
within 30 to 40 feet. Several smaller veins from a few inches to a foot in
thickness were seen to outcrop on the slopes and could be traced to the main
vein, with which they form a sharply acute angle. The main vein was traced
for a distance of 2,100 feet by croppings and floats from its outcrop near the
base of the lowest foothill up the slope of the mountain.
A sufficient development of the vein had not been made at the time of the
examination to determine the extent of the ore deposition. A tunnel about 40
feet in length had been driven in at the lowest outcrop of the vein, and was
the only opening that had been made. The walls of the vein are well defined.
Where the vein has its average thickness it is formed of a milky-white quartz
and carries a large amount of the hubnerite. Where the vein is pinched the
quartz is schistose and the ore is in thin stringers and of small amount. The
ore occurs in solid masses, frequently attaining a thickness of 6 to 12 inches.
It is disseminated through the vein material in thick, plate-like forms, and also
occurs crystallized with the quartz crystals. Small shoots of ore were seen
penetrating the country rock for a few inches. The vein material is readily
crushed, and the mineral, on account of its weight, is easily separated by
jigging.
Later information stated that the tunnel was extended to a length of 65 feet, the
vein widened out to 4 feet, and that the mineral occurs in bunches across the
full width of the vein. Scheelite has also been found in small bunches and
streaks with the hubnerite.
On one locality on the vein there was a somewhat remarkable occurrence of the
ore. It was found in large bunches or blocks averaging 75 per cent of tungstic
acid, and from a small space 4-1/2 tons of the tungsten ore had been obtained.
From report it was learned that other smaller quartz veins carrying wolframite
215. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1900 (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1901), pp. 257-58; Smith, "The Osceola, Nevada, Tungsten Deposits," 304; and White
Pine News, January 17, 1901.
146
had been found and located in the immediate vicinity. The veins are said to
carry gold in very small amount.216
Development work on the tungsten deposits continued in 1901. That year Dr. W.F.
Hillebrand made a qualitative test of several specimens from the principal vein that showed
the ore to be hubnerite. It was noted, however, that "the only drawback to these deposits"
was "their distance from railroad transportation." Nevertheless, the mine appeared "to be
singularly favored, for Nevada mines, in that it is very accessible, being practically in the
valley, at the foot of the mountain, and in close proximity to water both for milling purposes
and for power." The mountain sides above the deposits were "still covered with wood for
fuel" and some of the lumber was "large enough for mill and mine timbers."217
Because of the distance from the tungsten deposits to the nearest railroad most of the
activity in the district consisted of annual assessment work during the early 1900s. Actual
production began in 1904 when Marriott established the Tungsten Mining and Milling
Company to develop the deposits. That year the new firm mined about 80 tons of ore but
did not concentrate any portion of it.218
Transportation to the Tungsten Mining District was improved in September 1906 with
construction of a dirt wagon road to Ely which crossed the Schell Creek Range "over a
comparatively low pass with no very steep grades." At Ely the concentrated ore was
loaded aboard the Nevada Northern Railway and shipped to eastern refineries. By 1907
some thirty claims had been located in the district, all of which were controlled by the
Tungsten Mining and Milling Company.219
In 1909 George Doyle of Osceola discovered "fine tourmaline needles in glassy quartz near
the hubnerite tungsten deposits." Development work was soon commenced by R.C. Hills
of Denver, Colorado.220
In 1909 it was reported that Marriott had "partly developed a tungsten mine in Wheeler's
Peak." The tungsten ore occurred "in a vein between granite walls, the white quartz
gangue carrying 8 to 10% tungsten." He was planning to build a small ore concentration
plant to facilitate his operations.221
216. Twenty-First Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to the Secretary of the Interior, 1899-
1900, Part IV (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1901), pp. 319-20, and U.S. Geological Survey,
Contributions to Economic Geology, 1902 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1903), p. 103.
217. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1900, p. 262, and Smith,
"The Osceola, Nevada, Tungsten Deposits," 305.
218. White Pine News, January 19, 1905; U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States,
Calendar Year 1904 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1905), p. 331; and "Mining Summary - Nevada,"
Mining and Scientific Press, XCI (September 30, 1905), 233.
219. Weeks, "Tungsten Deposits In the Snake Range, White Pine County, Eastern Nevada," pp. 263-70. For
more data on the Nevada Northern Railway, see David F. Myrick, Railroads of Nevada and Eastern California (two
volumns, Berkeley, California, Howell-North Books, 1962), I, 113-34.
220. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1909, Part II - Nonmetals
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1911), p. 776.
221. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, XCVIII (April 17,
1909), 539.
147
During the fall of 1909 Marriott sold his hubnerite claims in the Tungsten district to Oscar
A. Turner, a Tonopah mine operator and president of the Ely Central Copper Company,
who organized the Hubnerite Tungsten Company. For the remainder of the year Turner
employed thirty men in prospecting and development work on his new property.222
In 1910 the Hubnerite Tungsten Company was reorganized as the United States Tungsten
Corporation, a firm controlled by officials of the Tonopah Mining Company of Philadelphia.
Considerable development work was carried out by the new concern on its 75 claims in
1910. The property, under the immediate supervision of E.L Fletcher, was "worked through
a series of tunnels." The ore had been "systematically blocked out," and a mill was "being
built on the ground." The property was "well improved, having a store, boarding-house and
instead of the old fashioned bunk house, where all are put in one room, cabins are
provided for the men with bunks for from two to four in each cabin." Mining equipment
consisted of two 35-horsepower steam boilers, a 5-drill Norwalk air compressor, sawmill,
and blacksmith shop. A fifty-ton mill was erected with a crusher, rolls, screen, classifiers,
Wilfley tables, and Isbell vanners. Water power by which the mill could be operated part
of the year was furnished by a 6,000-foot ditch that brought water from Williams Creek and
discharged into a pipeline 600 feet above the mine. An electric plant to furnish power
when water was insufficient was also erected. Twenty-eight men were employed, all but
six being white Americans. Daily pay for the workers was $4 for machinemen, $3.50 for
miners, and $5 for engineers.223
The Mining and Scientific Press reported on January 21, 1911, that the first shipment of
concentrate from the Hub Mine would be made to New York within several days. The
crude ore contained from 1 to 50 percent tungstic acid. The property was opened by a
tunnel, and the mining was done by drills operated by a water-driven compressor. The ore
was trammed from the tunnel directly to the ore-bin at the mill.224 Despite the promise of
the mining operations, however, the mill closed before the end of the year, because of low
prices for tungsten and financial entanglements of the company, after producing about 1,100
units of tungstic trioxide.225
With the rising price of tungsten as a result of World War I operations resumed at the Hub
Mine in late 1915. By November of that year the United States Tungsten Corporation
employed 100 men, and it was widely believed that one could "sell a 65% product for $45
per unit."226 In January 1916 the Mining and Scientific Press reported that developments
222. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1909, Part I - Metals,
pp. 579-80.
223. Annual Report of the State Inspector of Mines, 1910, p. 66, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and
Assembly, State of Nevada, 1911, 25th Session, Vol. 2, and U.S Geological Survey, Minerals Resources of the
United States, Calendar Year 1910, Part I - Metals (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1911), p. 739. See
Appendix L for a copy of the "Preliminary Report on the Tungsten Mining and Milling Company's Tungsten Property
at Tungsten, Nevada," March 7, 1912.
224. "General Mining News - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, Cll (January 21,
1911), 154-55.
225. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, p. 79, and Annual Report of the State Inspector
of Mines, 1912, p. 38, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1913, 26th Session, Vol
I. According to the Annual Report of the State Controller for 1911, the U.S. Tungsten Corporation worked 375 tons
of material with a gross value of $6,525. The cost of the extraction was $5,260, while that for the transportation
and reduction were $600 and $937.50, respectively. Annual Report of the State Controller, 1911, in Appendix to
Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1913, 26th Session, Vol. I.
226. "The Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXI (November 27,
1915), 836.
148
in the Hub Basin, recently renamed Tungsten Mines, consisted "of a 1700-ft. adit, obtaining
a vertical depth of 700 ft. on one vein." An upper adit had opened "a 400-ft. continuous
shoot." A mill was operating to process the ore, most of which was hubnerite.227
During the winter of 1915-16 shipment of the ore from the Hub Basin to Ely was hampered
by heavy snow. Up to two feet of snow blocked the roads. Thus, 18-mule pack trains
were used to transport the ore to Ely.228
By April 1916 it was reported that the United States Tungsten Corporation mill had been
working "for many months with satisfactory results." The daily yield was "about 1000 lb.
of over 60% concentrate." The company had recently begun some ground sluicing placer
work and was "finding a good deal of tungsten, including some large nuggets, without
having reached bedrock.
On April 21, 1916, the United States Tungsten Corporation shipped four tons of tungsten
concentrate from its Hub Mine, the nearby mining camp being known as Tungsten. The
buyer of the concentrate was the Midvale Steel Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
which was "in the market for tungsten ore containing over 3% delivered at Tungsten." The
sale of the four tons was worth $25,000, and a published wage schedule of the mining
company indicated that its lowest wages were $4 per day for surface labor and shovelers.
Tungsten mining excitement continued to increase throughout the Snake Range during the
spring of 1916. In May P.B. McDonald published a feature article in the Mining and
Scientific Press on the "tungsten rush," which included considerable information on the Hub
Mine. He observed:
In the centre of things is the snow-covered summit of Mount Wheeler, the
highest peak in Nevada, 13,058 ft. high. Along the western side of the range
in particular - the side toward Ely - a number of camps have been established,
several mills are being built, and many claims have been staked. Most of the
showings are scheelite, in small seams and patches, contained in quartz veins
that strike across the north-south trend of the range. The scheelite varies from
pearly-gray or white of almost the same shade as the quartz to yellow or
salmon-pink. Hubnerite is found at several of the principal prospects, in some
instances in association with scheelite; in fact, crystals of the two have been
found intertwined. The quartz veins vary up to several feet wide and carry from
1/2 to 3% of tungsten, with high-grade patches of 15 or 20%.
According to McDonald, the United States Tungsten Corporation was operating the oldest
tungsten mill in the Hub Basin. Seventeen years before when the Hub Mine had been
staked, the hubnerite had been concentrated in a small mill. The cost of freight had been
so high and the demand for hubnerite so uncertain that the early operators had become
discouraged. Since then, however, the mine had
been operated at intervals, but people were inclined to laugh at this attempt to
mine such an unheard-of mineral as the black coal-like hubnerite. Today a
227. "The Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (January 29,
1916), 183.
228. Read, White Pine Lang Syne, p. 1 85.
229. "Review of Mining - Ely, Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (April 1, 1916), 485.
230. "The Mining Summary - Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (May 6, 1916), 685.
149
number of companies are operating in the Snake range and other mills are
being built.
One of the factors contributing to the attraction of preparing tungsten for the market was
"the ease of concentrating it." In many cases this was
done in hand-jigs of the Joplin type, but where water is plentiful power is
employed. The heaviness of the tungsten minerals makes them easy to
separate, so that no complicated chemical process is necessary. Care must be
taken, particularly with scheelite, not to reduce it to slime, as this friable mineral
makes a very floury mess. Grinding to 30-mesh is about as fine as is done.
A notable feature of the tungsten prospecting, according to McDonald, was the "extensive
use made of automobiles." The "50 or 100 miles" that was "necessary to traverse in order
to reach a new discovery" was "covered with ease and speed by a succession of
motorcars." Trucks and "traction-engines" were employed to take supplies, machinery, and
equipment to the mines.231
The eastern Nevada tungsten boom quickly subsided by the summer of 1916, the result of
reduced demand and lower prices for that commodity. By June the United States Tungsten
Corporation reduced its mill operation "to one shift for want of ore." Nevertheless, it milled
2,767 tons of ore worth $38.86 per tone during the second quarter of the year for a profit
of $36,177. In September it was reported that the corporation had "leased most of its
ground in blocks on a sliding scale for the ore."232
All told, the United States Tungsten Corporation worked 8,226 tons of ore in 1916 having
a gross value of $367,086.45. The costs of extraction, transportation, and reduction were
$129,206.24, $46,764.37, and $76,371.58, respectively, leaving a net yield of $114,744.26.233
After a year of virtual inactivity the United States Tungsten Corporation was dissolved in
December 1917. The mill at the Hub Mine was dismantled, and the firm's assets were sold
to pay the firm's indebtedness.234
During the height of the tungsten mining rush in the Snake Range hubnerite veins were
discovered in the granite and quartzite formations along Williams Creek, some 1-1/2 miles
south of the Hub Mine. On March 24, 1916, the Consolidated Tungsten Mines Company
was organized by McGill and Ely interests with a capitalization of $500,000. The new firm
set to work developing its 20 lode and 10 placer claims. Several hubnerite viens were
opened by adits, containing 1.4 to 13.39 percent tungsten.235
231. P.B. McDonald, "Tungsten Mining in the West," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (June 3, 1916), 757-58.
232. "The Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (June 3,1916),
839; "The Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press (June 24, 1916), 958; "The
Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (August 5, 1916), 218; and "The
Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXIII (September 30, 1916), 510.
233. Annual Report of the State Controller, State of Nevada, 1916, p. 35.
234. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1917, Part I - Metals (Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1921), 946, and Weed, International Edition, The Mines Handbook, 1922, pp. 1,112-
13. Also see Charles Joseph Vitaliano, "Tungsten Deposits of the Snake Range, White Pine County, Nevada"
(Unpublished M.A. thesis, Columbia University, 1938), pp. 20-21.
235. "Review of Mining - Ely, Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (April 1, 1916), 485.
150
By May 1916 the company had commenced construction of a 30-ton mill, and the Big Four
vein had been opened and the ore "traced on the surface for 400 ft." Some of the
workings showed "so much hubnerite" that they resembled "a coal mine, with the black
ore." The "streak of high-grade" ore was "3 ft. wide in a vein" that was "from 7 to 1 1 ft.
wide." Large bodies of promising ore had been opened on the Gem and Gem Extension
claims, and men were prospecting on the nearby Doseoaris vein.236
With the decline in the price and market for tungsten, however, the Consolidated operations
quickly declined during the summer of 1916. By August the company operations had
closed.237
From 1917 to 1951 no documented mining activity occurred in the Tungsten district. The
Hub Mine was reopened in 1952 by L.T. Tilford who organized the Hub Basin Mining
Company and shipped scheelite and hubnerite concentrates.238 The following year Tilford
produced scheelite-hubnerite concentrates from 1,000 tons of dump ore, averaging 0.5
percent tungstic trioxide.239
A survey of the Tungsten district by the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1958 found no active
mining operations. There were, however, fourteen unpatented claims held through
assessment work. The Hub Mine had been developed along the main vein for some 1 ,700
feet at various levels. Other nearby veins were prospected by shallow cuts and small
drifts. The reserves of the Hub vein were depleted, and "minor reserves" were "inferred
in other nearby unexplored and partially explored veins."240
According to a report prepared by the Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology in 1976, the
Tungsten district had a total of seven productive years during its history. Production from
the district
including 3,600 units purchased from mines in other districts, was a little more
than the recorded total of 10,088 tons, including 1,000 tons of dump ore, and
14,000 units of WO3 [tungstic trioxide], valued at $704,000.241
236. "Review of Mining - Ely, Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (May 20, 1916), 762.
237. "The Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXIII (August 12,
1916), 253.
238. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, Area Reports, Volume III, 1952, p. 609.
239. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, Area Reports, Volume III, 1953, p. 674.
240. "Reports on the Investigations of Mineralization In and Adjacent to the Humboldt National Forest, Mt.
Wheeler Area," November 5, 1958, p. 4.
241. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, p. 79.
151
LEXINGTON (LEXINGTON CANYON, SHOSHONE) MINING DISTRICT
Location
The Lexington Mining District includes the watersheds of Big Wash, Lexington Creek, and
Black Canyon on the east slope of the southern Snake Range. In the early days the
eastern part of the Shoshone district was organized as the Lexington district.
History
The earliest discoveries and the date of establishment of the Lexington Mining District
cannot be documented. The earliest reference to the district was in 1874 when the Nevada
state mineralogist observed that the mines in the Lexington district, which had been
organized out of the eastern part of the Shoshone, were either abandoned or had
insufficient work being done in them as to be "worthy of mention."243
Some nine years later in the spring of 1883 the White Pine News reported on some mining
activity in the Lexington district. On April 28 the newspaper stated that some Boston
parties were taking a five-stamp mill to the district. Three weeks later on May 19 the
newspaper observed that George Coburn had gone to the district where he and a
Mr. Bibbons had valuable mining property.244
In 1883 the Director of the Mint reported on mining activity in the Lexington district.
Although there were no available records of gold production in the district, he observed:
In the Lexington district ... a shaft has been sunk 50 feet on the old ledge,
the ore found assaying from $20 to $70 per ton, without any dead work being
done in extracting it. As there is sufficient water for all mining purposes, it is
expected that the aid of capital will soon reopen the old mines.245
No documentation for the Lexington Mining District could be found for the years 1884-
1906. In February 1907, however, the White Pine News reported that Ernest R. Wooley
purchased the Razzle Dazzle claim and three other claims in the district from William F.
Fowler and D.J. Simonson for $3,700. After the purchase was completed, he transferred
the claims to the Lexington Concord Mining Company for $10,000.
Little mining activity occurred in the Lexington district between 1907 and 1915. In
November of the latter year the Mining and Scientific Press reported that W.L. Chapman
and A.D. Taylor, who were connected with the San Francisco-based Atkins, Kroll & Co.,
had discovered scheelite "in Big wash, 10 miles south of Snake creek, which is eight miles
west of Garrison, Utah." The two-foot vein of scheelite had been traced through five claims
staked by the two men. Chapman and Taylor were "packing high-grade ore off the
242. Ibid., p. 56.
243. Biennial Report of the State Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1873 and 1874, p. 89.
244. White Pine News, April 28, May 19, 1883.
245. Report of the Director of the Mint Upon the Production of the Precious Metals in the United States During
the Calendar Year 1883, p. 560.
246. White Pine News, February 18,1907.
152
mountain, 9,000 ft. altitude, with burros." The men were also operating along Snake Creek
and Sacramento Pass, but cold weather and snow were interfering with their mill work.247
The same periodical reported in April 1916 that Chapman and Taylor had discovered "the
best and highest scheelite prospect in the county" at "the head of Big wash, under Mt.
Washington, at an elevation of 9500 ft." After making "several shipments of better than
70% crude ore," deep January snows "drove them out of the area."
In May 1916 the Mining and Scientific Press reported that Chapman had recently made a
shipment of crude ore containing 78% tungstic acid "from the camp of Big Wash." The
shipment was "one of a series of the highest grade ever made from crude ore without
concentration." The ore was
crystallized scheelite, and contains some rare and beautiful specimens, the
crystals being translucent and having the general appearance of calcite crystals.
Work has been in progress on the property throughout the winter, and a number
of other shipments of the same grade have been made, all of them averaging
over 78%. The ore occurs as irregular deposits in a belt of metamorphosed
limestone 200 ft. wide, and operations might be classed as pocket-mining. From
one of these pockets a single chunk of this high-grade ore was taken, weighting
320 lb. Among the specimens Mr. Chapman brought with him on this trip to
Ely was a large geode, 8 to 10 in. diam., the interior of which is lined with pure
crystals of scheelite. He considers that the east side of the Snake range will
prove to be as important a producer of tungsten ores as the west side.
Development and production at the Chapman-Taylor Mine on Big Wash subsided in late
1916 as a result of the declining price and market of tungsten. No production has been
reported since that time, because, according to the U.S. Bureau of Mines, the "fractures
carrying scheelite were thin and too widely spaced to provide for a high-grade mining
operation," and the intervening rock carried "too little disseminated scheelite to mine as a
large scale low-grade operation."
An inspection by the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1963 found that the Big Wash property
consisted of five unpatented claims with "development workings" comprising "5 open cuts
of varying depth, and length, 2 shafts, 10 and 17 feet deep, a northward-trending adit 130
feet in length, and a large pit area 360 feet long and 60 feet wide." A total of some "500
tons of selected and sorted ore "had been produced and shipped "that contained less than
1.0 percent tungstic trioxide."250
After the Chapman-Taylor Mine fell into disuse, other promising tungsten claims were
prospected in Lexington Canyon. In 1918 the Bonanza Mine (sometimes referred to as the
Bonanzy or Lexington Mine), located near the headwaters of Lexington Creek, yielded
scheelite worth $20,000. In 1941 a 50-ton concentrating mill was constructed at the
247. "The Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXI (October 23,
1915), 646; and "The Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXI (November
27, 1915), 836.
248. "Review of Mining - Ely, Nevada," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (April 1, 1916), 485.
249. "The Mining Summary - Nevada - White Pine County," Mining and Scientific Press, CXII (May 20, 1916),
767.
250. "Big Wash," USBM Unpubl. Data, 1963, File No. 339, Snake Mining District, Nevada Mining District
Collection, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
153
Bonanza Mine, and scheelite concentrate worth about $80,000 was produced during the
next several years. There are no records of subsequent production from the mine. In
1963 the U.S. Bureau of Mines found that development on the Bonanza property consisted
"of a number of shafts 10 to 65 feet in depth and several surface pits and trenches."251
Other mines have also been developed in the Lexington district for which there is no
documentation. These workings include prospects in Arch Canyon, the Good Hope Mine
near the headwaters of Lexington Creek, the Ponderosa Mine, and the Arch Canyon Mine
near Lexington Arch.
251. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletin 85, Part II, pp. 56-57; U.S. Bureau of Mines, "Mineral
Investigation of the Highland Ridge Roadless Area, White Pine County, Nevada," MLA 68-83, by S. Don Brown,
1983, p. 4; and "Lexington," USBM Unpubl. Data, 1963, File No. 332, Minerva Mining District, Nevada Mining
District Collection, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
154
CHAPTER SEVEN
RANCHING AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
IN SNAKE AND SPRING VALLEYS
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to present a historical overview of agricultural and ranching
development in Snake and Spring valleys. Particular attention will be focused on the
settlers and historic agricultural development patterns in the vicinity of present-day Great
Basin National Park. To better understand the context within which these developments
occurred agricultural development in Nevada and White Pine County will be reviewed.
AGRICULTURAL AND RANCHING DEVELOPMENT IN NEVADA: 1850s - 1900s
The mineral strikes in Nevada after 1859 and the building of the Central Pacific Railroad
across the state during the late 1860s stimulated agricultural and livestock development.
The successive mining booms advertised Nevada and brought to many different parts of
the state thousands of persons who had to be fed. This necessity led to agricultural and
livestock development in the lands adjacent to the mining areas. This is not to imply,
however, that mining always preceded agricultural development, because agriculture
developed originally in Nevada as part of the emigrant movement to California and existed
independently of mining in some instances.
Euroamericans commenced farming in the area of present-day Nevada when John Reese
and his party from Salt Lake City arrived in the Carson Valley in June 1851. They planted
grain and vegetables which they later sold to emigrants on their way to California. Reese's
success brought additional ranches into Carson Valley, and before the end of the year
more than 100 persons were living near Reese's settlement, by that time more commonly
referred to as Mormon Station. By 1857, when the official call for their return to Salt Lake
came from Brigham Young, the Mormons were well on their way to establishing a stable
agricultural society under the leadership of Orson Hyde. Mormon farms had spread
throughout the Carson, Eagle, and Washoe valleys, and irrigation canals and flour mills had
been constructed. Although the withdrawal of the Mormons caused a temporary setback
in agricultural development in Carson County, by 1859 most of the Mormon farms were
again in production, having been either purchased from the retreating Mormons or
appropriated after their departure.1
The year 1851 also marked the beginning of permanent livestock development in Nevada.
The first livestock brought into the present state by Euroamericans came with the fur
trappers. In 1826-28 Jedediah Smith and Peter Skene Ogden brought horses and mules,
and cattle entered for the first time in 1834 when Joseph R. Walker took 47 head from
California on his return to the Great Salt Lake. The first cattle to winter in what is now
Nevada, however, were those belonging to John Reese and a few dairy cattle brought into
Carson Valley that same year by Captain H.A. Parker, a wagon master for Ben Holladay.
As Mormons continued to settle in present-day Nevada during the mid-1 850s, each family
brought several head of cattle and some drove as many as 40 head.
1. For an overview of the early history of agricultural development in Nevada, see Elliott, History of Nevada,
pp. 115-22. For further data on the development of Nevada agriculture, see Cecil W. Creel, A History of Nevada
Agriculture (Reno, University of Nevada, 1964), and Cruz Venstrom and Howard Mason, comps., "Agricultural History
of Nevada," Reno, 1944 (Typescript, Special Collections Department, University Library, University of Nevada, Reno).
155
In 1858 a disastrous drought in California prompted stockmen to drive their cattle into
Nevada to winter in the Carson and Eagle valleys and in the Truckee Meadows. This
practice increased until in the 1870s and 1880s the presence of out-of-state cattle on
Nevada rangeland became a major threat to local interests.
On the eve of the discovery of the Comstock Lode, the foundations of three important
ranching developments in present-day Nevada were laid. One was initiated by H.N.A.
("Hock") Mason, who brought a herd of cattle to winter in what became known as Mason
Valley in 1859. His success led him to establish a permanent herd of cattle in the valley,
and from this beginning he became one of the most important livestock men in Nevada
during the Comstock era. In August 1859 four cattlemen from Stanislaus County, California
- R.B. and T.B. Smith, S. Baldwin, and J.A. Rogers - crossed the Sierra with a herd and
located in an area just west of Mason Valley that soon became known as Smith Valley.
A third ranching development initiated in the 1850s was that of Henry Fred Dangberg, who
settled in the Carson Valley in 1855, and within a few years had established the
foundations of one of the most important ranching empires in western Nevada.
Dangberg gained fame by experimenting with non-native alfalfa seed in an effort to solve
the twin problems of overgrazing and winter feeding then facing the cattle industry. Unlike
sheep which were able to forage in Nevada's mountains, cattle quickly overgrazed the
native grasses. Thus, Dangberg's experiments helped to solve this problem by
demonstrating that non-native alfalfa did well in Nevada's alkaline soil and climate.2
Probably the first sheep to enter Nevada were the 150 head taken across its southern tip
in 1 841 by the Workman-Knowland Party on their way to California. The first permanent
band of sheep in Nevada was the several hundred Spanish Merinos brought into the
Carson Valley in 1852 by CD. Jones. During the 1850s the future state played a role in
the development of the sheep industry in the western United States by serving as a bridge
to California where the Gold Rush had created an extensive market for meat. Since sheep
could be purchased in New Mexico for less than $1 per head and sold in Sacramento for
$5 to $12 per head, a number of large sheep drives were undertaken from New Mexico to
California via the Humboldt River route. The first of these was led by Richens Lacy ("Uncle
Dick") Wootten in 1852. Over the next eight years it is estimated that half a million sheep
crossed Nevada on the way to the California market.
During the late 1850s the beginnings of the sheep industry were established in present-
day eastern Nevada. Pedro Altube, a Basque immigrant, recognized similarities between
the mountains of the Great Basin and his native Pyrenees. In 1858 he founded the
Spanish Ranch in present-day Elko County, and in later years he brought many of his
countrymen to the region to help herd his large flocks of sheep. Thus, Basques eventually
became an integral part of Nevada's social structure. Besides the Basque, many Chinese,
unemployed after completion of the Central Pacific Railroad in 1869, were hired to tend the
flocks.3 '
The discovery of the Comstock Lode in the summer of 1859 ushered in a new stage in the
development of Nevada agriculture, as the same economic factors which had created a
market in California for cattle and sheep in the 1850s now worked to bring thousands of
2. For more information on the cattle industry in Nevada see James A. Young and B. Abbott Sparks, Cattle
In the Cold Desert (Logan, Utah State University Press, 1985).
3. Clel Georgetta, "Sheep in Nevada," Nevada Historical Society Quarterly, VIII (Summer 1965), 34. For
more data on the history of the sheep industry in Nevada see Edward Norris Wentworth, America's Sheep Trails
(Ames, Iowa State College Press, 1948), and Byrd Wall Sawyer, Nevada Nomads: A Story of the Sheep Industry
(San Jose, California, Harlan-Young Press, 1971).
156
these animals from California to the Comstock and stimulated development of permanent
farms and ranches throughout western Nevada. The thousands of people who poured into
the Comstock area during the early 1860s needed food of all kinds, and farmers and
ranchers in Carson, Eagle, Washoe, Mason, and Smith valleys put additional acreage into
production to meet the demands for vegetables, flour, dairy products, and livestock feed.
As the Comstock towns moved from rough frontier communities to cosmopolitan cities the
demand for fresh vegetables and fruits induced Nevada farmers to extend their gardens,
raise strawberries, raspberries, and gooseberries, and plant apple and peach orchards.
Livestock developments prospered as a result of the Comstock boom. Ranching spread
throughout the valleys of western Nevada and into other parts of the state, partly because
of the Comstock demand, but more often as a result of mineral discoveries in nearby
areas. Each successive mining rush in Nevada during the 1860s created demands for
agricultural products.
During the 1 850s and 1 860s both ranchers and farmers appropriated water whenever and
wherever it was needed to irrigate their crops. When the Nevada territory was established
in 1861, the Common Law of England was adopted which recognized only the riparian
doctrine of water rights. The riparian doctrine stated that only property owners along
waterways had rights to water, and that right was to the full flow of the stream,
undiminished in either quantity or quality. Farmers often constructed brush dams
indiscriminately to divert water and engaged in other erratic irrigation practices. Thus, in
1 866 the state legislature passed an act allowing a person to divert the waters of any river
or stream and provided for a right-of-way for a ditch or flume to carry the diverted water
over lands owned by other persons. Thus, the appropriation doctrine of water rights was
recognized for the first time in Nevada. Despite the initiation of numerous lawsuits
regarding the water rights issue, irrigation development proceeded and by 1868 western
Nevada had some 45,000 acres of irrigated land.
According to Russell R. Elliott in his History of Nevada, it is quite apparent that ranching
increased in the state during the 1860s largely because of the expanded market provided
in the population jump from 6,857 in 1860 to 42,491 in 1870, and that this population
growth was due primarily to the Comstock and other mining rushes during that decade.
Other factors, however, were also involved in the growth of agricultural development. The
missionary activity of the Mormons during the 1850s in Carson County, Las Vegas, and
Snake Valley, and again in the 1860s in the Lincoln County area, was important in
establishing agriculture and livestock raising in those regions. In addition, the cattle and
sheep drives across Nevada in the 1850s and the use of certain areas in the state by
California and Utah stockmen as temporary feeding areas for their livestock during drought
conditions in the 1860s demonstrated the grazing potential of this seeming desert land.
Ruby Valley in Elko County is an example of agricultural development due, in the beginning
at least, to the freighting and stage business in the late 1850s and early 1860s.
Many of the first livestock developments in Elko County also had origins outside of mining.
Peter Haws established one of the first ranches along the Humboldt River in the early
1850s to take advantage of emigrant trains passing through the area. The land itself
attracted a number of ranchers who settled in present-day Elko County during the 1860s
and 1870s. The 1860s saw the beginning of four major cattle and sheep empires in
Nevada. In 1866 Lewis Rice Bradley began cattle operations in Mound Valley in Elko
County. John Sparks, a Texan, moved into Elko County in 1868 and with Jasper Harrell
4. For more data on water rights in Nevada see John W. Bird, "A History of Water Rights in Nevada,"
Nevada Historical Society Quarterly, XVIII (Spring 1975), 27-32; John W. Bird, "A History of Water Rights in
Nevada," Nevada Historical Society Quarterly, XIX (Spring 1976), 27-32; and W.M. Kearney, State Engineer, comp.,
How to Appropriate the Public Waters of the State of Nevada, 1911 (Carson City, 1911).
157
founded a major cattle empire that included a number of ranches in Oregon and Utah.
One of the first cattlemen to switch to sheep was Daniel C. Wheeler, who brought sheep
into the Truckee Meadows from Oregon in 1 867 and established the most extensive sheep
development in Nevada during that decade. An important eastern Nevada sheep ranch
began operations in 1865 when William McCurdy, a Civil War veteran, bought out Robert
Chin's band in Antelope Valley. In partnership with John Chapman, McCurdy built up a
sizable outfit of several thousand head which used the Antelope Range and Antelope Valley
for summer and winter range.5
As the Comstock mining operations began to decline in the late 1860s, Nevada officials
looked to stock grazing as the future economic bonanza of the state. On August 10, 1869,
for instance, E.L. Davis, the Nevada Surveyor-General, described this outlook in a letter to
James L. Wilson, Commissioner of the General Land Office:
As deservedly great and valuable as is the mining industry of Nevada, it no
longer absorbs the public attention. The grazing capacity of the State is coming
to be understood and appreciated. It is destined to be the second great
resource of our country. ... It is the uniform testimony of all, who has
traversed the State, that the mountains and foothills produce luxuriantly several
varieties of bunch grass. It is noticeable that even in the arid valleys each sage
brush shelters two or three bunches of grass. In some parts of the apparently
barren plains there are large tracts of what is commonly known as "sand grass"
which is admitted to be one of the finest of bunch grasses. This grass grows
in bunches about one foot in height, and is loaded with black seed much
resembling buckwheat. Stock are fond of this grass and when they feed upon
it either green or dry will keep them in prime condition and render good service.
All the varieties of the bunch grasses are hardy and grow generally from barren
looking soils. Besides these grasses there grows in the valleys a grayish white
shrub called "white sage" which is valuable winter feed for stocks. While it is
growing it has a resinous and bitter taste and is not eaten, but after it has been
touched by the frost it becomes tender, sweet and nutritious. It has been aptly
called "winter fat" by stock growers and herders. This white sage and those
various bunch grasses are remarkably nutritious and the cattle which feed upon
them look uncommonly well after a prolonged seasons constant use. Stock,
whether cattle, horses or sheep which have been without shelter in this State,
bear palpable evidence in the spring of the fatness of its pasturage and the
salubrity of the semi-rigorous season.6
The discovery and development of mineral areas throughout the state, the increase in
Nevada's population from 42,491 in 1870 to 62,266 in 1880, and the completion of the
Central Pacific Railroad in 1869 made the decade of the 1870s a period of remarkable
growth for the livestock industry in Nevada. Between 1870 and 1880 the number of cattle
in the state increased from 72,000 to 250,000 head, of sheep from 33,000 to 259,000, of
horses from 8,000 to 34,000, and of hogs from 4,000 to 12,000.
Since the railroad roughly paralleled the Humboldt, it encouraged the development along
that river and its tributaries of ranches which produced hay and commanded neighboring
valleys for summer range. In addition, the railroad made outside markets available for
Nevada livestock. By the mid-1 870s, for example, Elko had become the principal
5. Elliott, History of Nevada, pp. 118-21. Also see Georgetta, "Sheep in Nevada," 31.
6. Davis to Wilson, August 10, 1869, Nevada Office of the Surveyor General, Reno, Copies of Letters Sent
("Letter Book 'A'"), 1861-1869, Box 1, Series 1, Record Group 49, Records of the Bureau of Land Management,
National Archives and Records Administration, San Francisco Branch, San Bruno.
158
transportation and distribution point for the northeastern Nevada livestock industry, San
Francisco was obtaining half of its beef supply from Nevada, and both sheep and cattle
were being shipped to eastern markets. Those ranches, many established in 1868 and
1869, which were within driving distance of the railroad, expanded rapidly and others begun
in the 1850s and 1860s blossomed into major operations. The 1870s also witnessed the
establishment of ranches by Abner C. Cleveland in Spring Valley, White Pine County, and
Jewett Adams in the Belmont area of Nye County. Both of these men would later become
major livestock producers. Thus, by 1880, as the Comstock depression set in, Nevada's
agricultural and livestock developments were expanding.7
During the next several decades the growth and development of Nevada agriculture and
livestock raising were chronicled in the publications of state officials. The state
mineralogist, for instance, noted in his biennial report for 1877-78 that the livestock
business in Nevada was booming, particularly in the northern and eastern sections of the
state. He observed:
The soil of the State is generally a loam, most fertile where the underlying rock
is limestone, but nearly everywhere sufficiently so to reward the labors of the
husbandman, where water can be obtained for the purposes of irrigation. The
immense stretches of barren wastes so often seen are only so, because of the
want of moistening showers of rain, and streams sufficiently numerous to supply
the demands for agriculture. As a large proportion of the land is much better
adapted to grazing than to tillage, much attention has been given to the raising
of livestock, and the horses, cattle, sheep, and goats bred here are of excellent
quality. The winter feed, consisting of bunch grass and white sage, furnishes
the best of sustenance for stock, so that, with rare exceptions, is any provision
made or stores of fodder laid up for winter use. During the summer months the
pasturage in the vicinity of springs, brooks, and creeks on mountain sides and
in the cafions supplies the feed, but then winter comes, the herds and flocks
feed miles away from water in the valleys. The northern and eastern sections
of the State are the best adapted for grazing. Many of the loftiest mountains
are covered with a species of bunch grass peculiar to those localities. The
table lands and dry valleys in many places are covered with the white sage
which makes the best of winter feed for stock. When growing in the spring and
summer, this sage is bitter and not eaten, but when the frosts of fall and winter
come it is tender, sweet, and nutritious, and better liked by stock than other
kinds of feed. So extensive has the business of stock raising become that now
the supply far exceeds the wants of the population, and thousands of head of
beef cattle are yearly shipped by railroad to the markets of California.
He went on to describe the agricultural potential of arable lands in the state, particularly
where irrigation was readily available. Among the areas where the best arable lands were
located for the cultivation of grains, vegetables, and fruit were Snake and Spring valleys:
The agricultural lands of the State are small in proportion to the area, though
in all of the valleys where are found streams of water large tracts of land are
brought under cultivation, and the crops produced are very superior in character.
The best of these arable lands are found in Carson, Eagle, Mason, Washoe,
Truckee, Humboldt, Reese River, Owyhee, Tamoille, Ruby, Steptoe, Spring,
White River, Snake, Panaca, Pahranegat, Paradise, Muddy, and Las Vegas
valleys. There are hundreds of other smaller valleys, and in many of them the
soil is quite as productive, though less water is found; and there is no land in
Elliott, History of Nevada, pp. 121-22.
159
the State but what is benefited, for agriculture, by irrigation. In the northern and
central valleys all the grains, vegetable, and fruits of a temperate climate are
cultivated with success.8
Four years later, in 1882, the Nevada Surveyor-General and State Land Register reported
on the continuing promise of the state livestock industry. He noted:
Within the last two years there has been a decided advance in the stock
growing interest, owing to the higher prices of meat which are obtained
throughout the country. Cattle and sheep are now shipped out of the state,
both east and west, and to the best of my knowledge more are shipped west
than east. The San Francisco market seems to be the favorite with our stock
raisers. Several of our Nevada stock raisers have herds in different parts of the
state. Several of our Nevada stock raisers have tried the ranges of Eastern
Oregon and Idaho ... but Nevada has greatly the advantage over her northern
neighbors as a stock raising country, on account of her climate, which is less
rigorous than in the higher latitudes during the winter and early spring, when the
young stock usually makes its first appearance.9
In 1902, some twenty years later the Nevada Surveyor-General observed that the "live
stock industry of the State is of great importance, and one of the most profitable." He went
on to elaborate:
There are large areas of the public domain which afford pasturage for herds and
flocks the greater part of the year. The grasses indigenous to Nevada are of
the most nutritious character and are eaten with avidity by horses, cattle and
sheep. Stockmen devote more attention to winter feed than was customary
some years ago, when, as a general rule, herds and flocks were expected to
subsist the year around on the feed afforded by the range. Alfalfa-fed beef and
mutton command the highest prices in the markets east and west, and are
considered equal if not superior to the corn-fed meats of the States east of the
Rocky Mountains.
All told, state livestock assessment statistics showed that ranchers possessed 70,688
horses and mules, 216,679 cattle, 731,075 sheep, 3,445 goats, and 7,995 hogs. Of these
totals, White Pine County ranchers had 19,500 horses and mules, 6,404, cattle, 31,000
sheep, and 500 hogs.10
In 1906 the Nevada Surveyor-General described the development of agriculture and
livestock raising in greater detail. Among other things, he noted:
The agricultural interests of Nevada, stimulated by the mining revival, are more
prosperous than at any previous time in the history of the State. The products
of the soil are in demand at remunerative prices, and farmers share in the
general prosperity. Mortgages are being redeemed, new lands are being
redeemed, new lands are being reclaimed, substantial and, in many instances,
8. Biennial Report of the State Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1877 and 1878, pp. 11-
12, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 9th Session.
9. Quoted in James G. Scrugham, ed., Nevada: A Narrative of the Conquest of a Frontier Land .... (3
vols., Chicago and New York, The American Historical Society, Inc., 1935), I, 321-22.
10. Biennial Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register, 1901-1902, pp. 21-22, in Appendix to
Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1903, 21st Session.
160
palatial residences are being erected and the agricultural valleys are dotted with
stately homes. The Government, under the provisions of the Newlands Bill, is
engaged in reclaiming the deserts by storing the surplus waters of the principal
streams and building substantial canals to divert them from their natural
channels to the rich soils of the arid valleys, which require only moisture and
cultivation to make them as productive as those of the great farming regions of
the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys.
The plateaus and foot hills of Nevada furnish excellent feed for live stock. The
indigenous grasses of those regions are very nutritious, and cattle and sheep
not only thrive, but fatten* on the open range. The beef produced is
pronounced by connoisseurs as being equal to the best in any market, and it
finds a ready sale in the East as well as in California. Nevada mutton
commands the highest prices in St. Louis, Kansas City, and Chicago, and the
demand for it is greater than the supply. The wool produced in this State is
of superior quality, and eastern buyers are always ready to purchase it at the
nearest railroad station at eastern prices, less cost of freight. Horses, which
a few years ago were so numerous that the Legislature passed an Act
authorizing their wholesale slaughter on the ranges, are now in brisk demand
at good prices. It has been demonstrated that Nevada range horses make the
most serviceable and enduring animals for the cavalry service that can be
procured by the Government, and, notwithstanding the fact that horses are
being supplanted by steam and electricity on street railways in the cities, and
by automobiles as mail and passenger carriers in the country, the demand for
them seems to increase rather than diminish.11
AGRICULTURAL AND RANCHING DEVELOPMENT IN WHITE PINE COUNTY AND
SNAKE AND SPRING VALLEYS: 1860S-1970S
During the White Pine mining rush in the late 1860s prospectors entered eastern Nevada
by the thousands, establishing mining camps and towns near the new mineral strikes. The
growth of population resulting from the spreading mining development in the region created
a market for agricultural and livestock products. To meet the foodstuff needs of the
growing populace the first permanent Euroamerican settlers entered the area to establish
farms and ranches for raising crops, including grains, fruit, and vegetables. Stockraising
and dairy operations were also begun to provide beef, pork, mutton, milk, butter, cheese,
and wool. Horses and mules were raised to provide work animals for the mines, farms,
and transportation needs of the settlements.
By November 1866 considerable agricultural development had occurred in Lander County,
out of which White Pine County would later be carved on April 1, 1869. In the Annual
Report of the Surveyor General of the State of Nevada for 1866 the stockraising and
agricultural development of Lander County was described:
There are in the county one thousand and eighty-five horses, two hundred and
five mules, three thousand six hundred and fifty-seven horned cattle, one
hundred and forty-two swine, one thousand five hundred and ninety sheep.
In consequence of frequent frosts, apparent barrenness of the land and absence
of rains, it was thought by the first settlers that little of anything could be raised
or cultivated; but from the large crops of grains and vegetables that have been
11. Biennial Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register, 1905-1906, pp. 6-7, in Appendix to
Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1907, 23rd Session.
161
successfully cultivated and gathered the past season, the doubts and fears of
the inhabitants regarding agriculture have vanished, and they now feel satisfied
that more than enough can be raised to supply our own wants, and for a much
larger population. The products of the soil are now afforded at reasonable
prices, and at much less than they can be brought from outside the county.
The past season two thousand five hundred acres of grain, principally barley,
together with some oats and wheat, have been raised. The yield averaged
thirty bushels to the acre. Potatoes and vegetables of all the different kinds
have been raised in large quantities. The crop of hay is large, and quantity cut
unknown; the price is from $25 to $30 per ton. Barley is sold in the city at
from five to six cents per pound. Potatoes are sold at from two to three cents
per pound.12
Beginning about 1869 settlers began moving into Snake and Spring valleys to establish
farms and ranches. They generally located near the valley bottoms where springs and
snow melt out of the mountains provided water for irrigation. The valley bottoms were at
a sufficiently low elevation to ensure a growing season long enough to grow a variety of
crops successfully.
The White Pine Daily News began publishing accounts of the agricultural prospects of
Snake and Spring valleys in the spring of 1869. On May 8, for instance, the newspaper
reported that "Spring Valley is quite broad, of unknown length, and contains an abundance
of the finest agricultural land in the Great Basin, while the foothills and mountains afford
superior grazing land."13 The following month, on June 21 and 23, the newspaper reported
that "bearing fruit trees" were abundant in Snake Valley and that the valley consisted of "a
large scope of agricultural country, the finest in the Great Basin."14 Later in October the
newspaper elaborated further on the growing settlement and agricultural development in
Snake Valley:
Farming in Snake Valley has come to be profitable, and numerous farms have
this year been located. Large extents of fine arable land lie in and about the
Valley. Sixty or seventy ranches have been located this year, and settlers are
still finding land to set up their homes upon. Excellent crops of barley are
grown in Snake Valley, beside abundant yields and finest quality of all kinds of
vegetables.15
By February 1873 Snake Valley had become a small agricultural community. On February
7 the Ely Record reported:
Snake Valley. This is the name of a flourishing agricultural settlement about
one hundred miles north in Nye County. There are about fifteen or twenty
families in the settlement with quite a number of bachelors. New locations are
being made constantly. There are copious springs, canyons with small timber
12. Annual Report of the Surveyor General of the State of Nevada For the Year AD. 1866 (Carson City,
1867), p. 71.
13. White Pine Daily News, May 8, 1869.
14. White Pine Daily News, June 21, 23, 1869.
15. White Pine Daily News, October 16, 1869.
162
for fencing material, and a sawmill is being negotiated. A school district will be
organized.16
The agricultural potential of White Pine County began to receive attention from Nevada
state officials during the early 1870s. In the Biennial Report of the State Mineralogist for
1871-72 it was stated:
The agricultural resources are as good as those of any other county in the
State. The rich, arable lands of Steptoe, Spring, and White River Valleys
cannot be excelled. They are, however, as yet, available only in producing
supplies for the markets of the mining camps. When the mines give out the
farms also cease yielding good crops. No section of the State affords better
pasturage for stock. Many of the mountain ranges are covered from base to
summit with nutritious bunch grasses.17
The early agricultural diversity of White Pine County was graphically described in the Report
of the Surveyor General and State Land Register for 1871-72. The report provided
estimates of livestock and agricultural produce for the county in 1871. That year there
were 640 horses, 400 mules, 4,050 cattle, 3,000 sheep, and 200 hogs in the county. Of
the 100,000 acres that were considered suitable for cultivation, some 10,000 acres were
planted with various crops. These included: wheat (100 acres/2,000 bushels); barley (200
acres/6,000 bushels); hay (10,000 acres/4,000 tons); oats (20 acres/400 bushels); and
potatoes (40 acres/6,000 bushels).18
The agricultural output of White Pine County increased both in size and diversity between
1871 and 1874. Contributing to the increasing diversity was the fact that as the White Pine
mining rush and its aftermath subsided the farmers and ranchers lost their produce,
vegetable, and dairy markets, thus forcing them to turn to livestock production and feed
crops for economic survival.19 By 1874 some 4,500 acres of farm land in the county were
fenced, more than 3,000 acres were planted in row crops, and 8,000 acres were producing
hay. Some 60 irrigation ditches provided for more than 3,000 acres of irrigated land in the
county. Among the principal crops raised were: wheat (400 acres/10,000 bushels); barley
(2,000 acres/70,000 bushels); oats (400 acres/12,000 bushels); rye (100 acres/1,000
bushels); corn (60 acres/800 bushels); peas (20 acres/200 bushels); beans (20 acres/240
bushels); potatoes (400 acres/30,000 bushels); onions (10 acres/120 bushels); hay (8,000
acres/6,000 tons); beets (11 tons); turnips (73 tons); and pumpkins and squash (50 tons).
In addition, county farms produced 20,000 pounds of butter, 4,000 pounds of cheese, and
18,000 pounds of wool.
Fruit production was a fledgling part of the White Pine County farm economy by 1874.
There were 50 apple trees, 100 peach trees, 35 pear trees, 50 cherry trees, and 30
gooseberry bushes.
By 1874 there were nearly 14,000 head of livestock in the county. These included: 1,029
horses; 140 mules; 18 asses; 1,882 cows; 2,700 calves; 5,970 beef cattle; 2,500 sheep;
16. Ely Record, February 7, 1873, printed in Read, White Pine Lang Syne, p. 135.
17. Biennial Report of the State Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1871 and 1872, p. 143,
in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, Sixth Session.
18. Report of the Surveyor General and State Land Register of the State of Nevada For the Years 1871 and
1872, pp. 9-18, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, Sixth Session.
19. Creel, History of Nevada Agriculture, p. 14.
163
3 cashmere and angora goats; and 350 hogs. Other animals raised included 2,000
chickens, 125 turkeys, 40 geese, and 80 ducks. It was estimated that there were 500,000
acres of land in the county suitable for grazing.20
Agricultural development and diversity increased in White Pine County during the 1870s.
While stockraising continued to be the most prominent part of the county agricultural
industry, there was a shift in the type of livestock raised from cattle to sheep during that
decade. By the mid- 1870s much of the county was overgrazed by cattle and horses.
Thus, many ranchers turned to sheep because they could survive and even prosper on the
overgrazed lands.21
By 1880 some 13,120 acres of White Pine County farmland were fenced, and 2,175 acres
were under cultivation. The crops raised included: wheat (107 acres/3,610 bushels);
barley (1,406 acres/40,512 bushels); oats (211 acres/5,586 bushels); rye (25 acres/176
bushels); corn 915 acres/420 bushels); peas (5 acres/100 bushels); beans (4 acres/90
bushels); potatoes (336 acres/24,862 bushels); onions (3 acres/ 90 bushels); cabbage (6
acres/24 tons); carrots (5 acres/20 tons); parsnips (1-1/2 acres/6 tons); and tomatoes (1-
1/2 acres/3 tons). In addition, some 5,871 acres produced 4,224 tons of hay, and county
farmers produced 1 1 tons of beets, 20 tons of turnips, 21 ,600 pounds of butter, and 24,540
pounds of wool.
Fruit production in the county had also become more extensive by 1880. There were 145
apple trees, 25 peach trees, 15 pear trees, 20 plum trees, and 10 cherry trees. In addition,
there were 200 gooseberry bushes, 400 raspberry vines, and 6,000 strawberry vines.
Livestock raising, however, continued to be the most prominent aspect of White Pine
County agriculture. In 1880 there were 2,000 horses, 400 mules, 75 asses, 3,000 cows,
1,800 calves, 2,000 beef cattle, 200 oxen, 100 bulls, 10,000 sheep and lambs, 340 hogs,
4,000 chickens, 200 turkeys, 4 geese, and 42 ducks in the county. Two beehives
produced 60 pounds of honey.
Irrigation continued to be critical to the ongoing development of agriculture in the county.
In 1880 some 75 irrigation ditches extending for 140 miles in length provided for 8,500
acres of irrigated lands.22
In his History of Nevada published in 1881 Myron Angel commented on the agricultural
development of White Pine County since its establishment in 1869. He observed:
The discovery of mineral wealth had the effect to develop the agricultural
resources of the county, which were before unknown. The fertile lands of
Spring, Steptoe and Snake Valleys were sought out and brought into requisition,
and made to supply the mining camps with every cereal, vegetable and fruit
which a northern climate can produce. The mountain ranges furnished
abundance of wood and timber, and the frequent springs and streams upon
their sides and at their base rendered thousands of acres valuable for grazing.
The surplus waters of the mountain streams, by means of irrigating ditches,
20. Report of the Surveyor General and State Land Register of the State of Nevada For the Years 1873 and
1874, pp. 21-31, 34, 37, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, Seventh Session.
21. Sawyer, Nevada Nomads, pp. 18-22; Wentworth, America's Sheep Trails, pp. 218-22; and Clel Georgetta,
Golden Fleece in Nevada (Reno, Venture Publishing Company, 1972), pp. 304-07.
22. Report of the Surveyor General and State Land Register of the State of Nevada For the Years 1879 and
1880, pp. 46-59, 63, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 10th Session.
164
were turned upon the dry and barren fields, which were thereby made to
blossom and bear fruit.
Concerning the agricultural resources of Spring and Snake valleys in 1881, Angel noted:
spring valley commences near the southern boundary line of the county, and
ends near the northern boundary line. Its length is about 100 miles, and its
width 12. Its northern portion is well watered by numerous small creeks, all
of which run long enough for irrigation in the spring, and many of which are
living streams. It contains about 25,000 acres of good arable soil that can be
irrigated. Its white population numbers about 150 persons.
snake valley lies east of the Snake range, the State line passing through it.
About 350,000 acres of it are in this county, of which 10,000 are tillable. It is
chiefly devoted to stock-raising. Its slope being to the south and east, its
climate is warmer than that of most portions of the county, and large quantities
of tomatoes and other vegetables are successfully cultivated.23
Agricultural development continued in Snake and Spring valleys during the late nineteenth
century. On July 31, 1886, for instance, the White Pine Daily News reported that they
were "two of the most prolific valleys in the State." Farmers were producing "an over-
abundance of hay, grain, and all kinds of vegetables and small fruits" which were "sold at
cheaper rates than the same products command in California."24
In 1894 the agricultural and stockraising opportunities in White Pine County were praised
in a publication prepared by the Nevada State Bureau of Immigration. While the avowed
purpose of such brochures was to attract investors and settlers to the state, the pamphlet
provided insights into the state of agriculture in the county just prior to the turn of the
century as well as the hopes and aspirations of the state's boosters. The brochure, entitled
Nevada and Her Resources, described the existing condition and potential of White Pine
agriculture and the need for better and more efficient transportation to aid area farmers and
stock raisers:
White Pine county is situated at the extreme eastern side of the State, about
midway between the northern and southern boundaries. It has an area of 8,885
square miles, or nearly 5,700,000 acres, and comprises a number of valleys
separated by mountain ranges, extending from north to south, some of which
are from 11,000 to 12,000 feet in height, while the highest peaks reach an
altitude of almost 13,000 feet. These high mountains receive a very heavy
precipitation of snow, which, melting, yields a large volume of water that flows
down into the valleys, moistening the ground and producing excellent range for
stock, besides furnishing a supply for irrigation, but a portion of which is yet
utilized. Hitherto the absence of transportation facilities - there are no railroads
entering the county - has retarded development in this portion of the State. As
a consequence, mining and stock raising, with only sufficient farming to supply
local demands, have occupied the entire attention of the people, and it is chiefly
as a mining county that White Pine has been known in the past.
23. Angel, History of Nevada, pp. 648, 652.
24. White Pine Daily News, July 31, 1886.
165
The brochure went on to state that stockraising is
an important industry in White Pine county, and some of the best ranges of
the State are located here. In the valleys and on the lower mountain ranges
and foothills all the grasses that grow in the northern part of the State are
abundant, while in almost every part of the county the white sage and browse,
which afford excellent winter feed, are to be found. Besides the stock owned
in the county, thousands of head of sheep are annually driven from Elko county
and further north to winter in the valleys of White Pine, where the snowfall is
always very light and the feed good.
As before stated, owing to the lack of railroads in the county and the
consequent cost of transportation to markets, agriculture is not carried on
beyond the supplying of the local mining camps with required farm produce,
except in the way of raising hay and other forage for stock. However, with its
numerous large and rich valleys, and comparatively large water supply, White
Pine is destined at no distant day, when railroads have penetrated this portion
of the State, to become a fine farming district. The principal agricultural valleys
are Snake, Spring, Antelope, Steptoe, Sierra or White River, Butte, Newark and
Gilson's valleys. They comprise in the aggregate about 1 ,600,000 acres of rich
alluvial land, not more than two per cent of which is now under irrigation, though
the surface waters which can be made available is amply sufficient to properly
serve fully 400,000 acres, and the indications are favorable for a large artisan
supply.
Though most of these valleys are at an elevation of between 5,000 and 6,000
feet above sea level, many of them are on the southern slope of the great basin
plateau, and opening to the south, receive the warm currents of air that blow
across the Colorado desert and up the Colorado river. Thus they have a milder
climate than many parts of the inter-mountain region having a much lower
altitude. So many varieties of fruits, such as peaches and apricots, besides the
more hardy ones, do well here, and are sure of bearing. The soil generally is
the same as is found in the other valleys of the State, and wherever cultivated
yields enormous crops.25
Despite several disastrous winters followed by periods of drought, agricultural statistics for
White Pine County in 1890 and 1900 reveal general growth and diversification during the
latter years of the nineteenth century. The number of acres enclosed by fencing increased
from 15,000 in 1890 to 50,000 in 1900, while the acreage under cultivation, which had been
2,175 in 1880, remained at 10,000 both in 1890 and 1900. With several exceptions there
was an expansion in output of virtually all row crops between 1890 and 1900:
25. Nevada State Bureau of Immigration, comp., Nevada and Her Resources: A Brief Sketch of the
Advantages and Possibilities of the State, and the Opportunities and Inducements Offered to Capitalists and
Homeseekers (Carson City, State Printing Office, 1894), n.p.
166
1890 1900
200 acres/200 tons
400 acres/400 tons
300 acres/200 tons
20 acres/15 tons
5 acres/4 tons
20 tons
400 acres/1,200 tons
6 acres/5 tons
5 acres
10 tons
5 tons
5 tons
40 tons
50 tons
While hay production declined from 7,000 acres/7,000 tons in 1890 to 5,000 acres/5,250
tons in 1900 and butter production decreased from 10,000 pounds to 3,000 pounds, wool
increased from 140,000 pounds to 183,235 pounds.
Fruit production in White Pine County multiplied several times over between 1890 and
1900, the greatest expansion occurring in the planting of apple and peach trees and
strawberry vines. Statistics for this period are:
wheat
100 acres/3,000 bushels
barley
800 acres/30,000 bushels
oats
300 acres/11,000 bushels
corn
20 acres/800 bushels
rye
—
peas and beans
2 acres each
potatoes
40 acres/4,000 bushels
onions
2 acres
cabbage
10 acres/8 tons
carrots
10 acres
parsnips
2 acres
tomatoes
1 acre
beets
20 tons
turnips
10 tons
1890
1900
apple trees
100
2,000
peach trees
100
2,500
pear trees
50
50
plum trees
20
150
cherry trees
20
40
nectarine trees
20
0
apricot trees
10
80
gooseberry bushes
1,200
500
raspberry vines
0
500
strawberry vines
1,200
20,000
currant bushes
2,400
600
grape vines
0
500
Livestock raising, however, continued to be the mainstay of the agrarian economy in White
Pine County during the late nineteenth century. Statistics for the period show that there
was a slight decline in sheep raising accompanied by a major increase in cattle raising
between 1890 and 1900. Statistics for those years indicate:
1890
1900
horses
3,000
2,000
mules
100
100
asses
25
50
cows
300
400
calves
250
350
beef cattle
1,000
0
stock cattle
7,000
15,321
oxen
20
4
167
bulls
300
sheep and lambs
35,000
hogs
200
chickens
1,000
turkeys
200
geese
50
ducks
200
500
30,000
300
3,500
100
20
225
Available statistics show that blooded stock were an integral part of the livestock industry
in White Pine County by 1890. There were 10 Percheron, Clydesdale, and Norman horses
in the county that year, each valued at $300 per head. Blooded cattle included six breeds
and 160 head valued at $80 per animal. The six breeds were: Holsteins (20); Durhams
(40); Polled Angus (20); Herefords (60); Galloways (10); and Devons (10). Comparative
statistics for blooded stock in 1900 could not be found.
Accompanying the growth of agriculture in the county was the expansion and construction
of irrigation ditches. In 1880 there had been 75 ditches extending some 140 miles
providing for 8,500 irrigated acres. By 1900 there were an estimated 500 ditches extending
some 1 ,000 miles that watered approximately 1 0,000 acres of land.26
In 1906 the U.S. Forest Service surveyed portions of eastern Nevada looking for areas that
had potential as national forests. An area embracing "a strip of country 50 to 60 miles
wide along the Utah State line in eastern Nevada, between the Lincoln County line and the
Central Pacific R.R." was investigated by Forest Expert L. Von Wernstedt. During the
course of his examination he made observations on the range conditions and agricultural
prospects of the Egan, Schell Creek, and Snake ranges as well as their adjacent valleys.
Among other things he noted:
In the early days this country was used by large numbers of cattle and the
range then became much over-stocked. Later on and at the present time,
sheep have been using the range in addition to local cattle belonging to settlers.
The effect of the sheep has been the killing out of the bulk of the grass in the
valleys. The main feed in the valleys is now winterfat or, as it is locally called,
white sage (Puritala lanata). In addition the sheep feed to a great extent on
various kinds of brush, greasewood (Sarcobatas), shadscale (Atroplex), and
several kinds of rabbit brush {Bigalovia), as well as on the ordinary black sage
(Artemesia). Even the brush has now frequently become stunted. The country
is also subjected to periods of drought which hurt the ranges and force
temporary reductions of stock. The winterfat is most abundant in the valleys
along the base of the mountains where it frequently forms a belt generally one
to two miles wide to the exclusion of other vegetation except some scattering
grass. This belt is easily distinguished for long distances by its light gray
coloring. In the valleys . . . there are meadow areas of some extent. Part of
these areas are grass lands, part are greasewood bottoms, and part of them
are occupied by dry lakes or salty areas without much vegetation. They are
generally wet in the spring and dry out in the summer.
The valleys, as a rule, are used as winter range and the mountains as summer
range. As said before, some of the mountains and parts of all of them are not
used at all on account of lack of water. ... All the other mountains are
26. Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register of the State of Nevada For The Years 1889 and
1890, pp. 168-78, 180, 183, 187, 190, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1891,
15th Session, and Biennial Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register, 1899-1900, pp. 46-53, 56, in
Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1901, 20th Session.
168
unevenly used for summer range and wherever used they are over-stocked.
The best watered mountains are the central part of the Shell Creek range and
the central part of the Snake range. There is a general movement south of
sheep in winter time through the valleys. About 200,000 sheep additional enter
the country in the fall, passing out in the spring. Those come in through the
valleys west of Spruce, through Independence Valley, through Cobre, Ferguson
Spring, and Depp Creek, and range in the valleys north of Shellbourne, Copper
Ranch, and Cougars. They summer in Ruby Mountains and Bruno Mountains,
in Utah and in Idaho. Besides there are several smaller local sheepmen and
one big local sheepowner, McGill & Adams of Ely.
The settlements are entirely confined to streams and springs, and nothing is
raised without irrigation. The main settlements are east and west of the central
part of Shell Creek range and east of the Snake range.
Wemstedt also made specific observations on the status of ranching and farm development
in Snake Valley and range conditions in the Snake Mountains. He noted:
There are 25 ranches, most of them in Snake Valley, that depend on the water
from the Snake range. These ranches have an approximate area of 7,000 to
8,000 acres of which 2,500 acres are in grain or alfalfa, and the balance is
irrigated pasture. Potatoes, wheat, oats, alfalfa, barley, wild hay are raised, and
in Snake Valley, fruit, peaches, pears, prunes, plums, grapes, etc. Improved
farm land is valued at $25 an acre.
The number of cattle and sheep owned by these ranches and depending on the
Snake range is approximately 22,000 sheep owned by 8 men, and 3,300 cattle;
most of the sheep are run on Mt. Moraja. It does not seem probable that
farming will ever be carried on to a much greater extent in the future than at
the present as all depend on the limited water supply which could not be
materially increased or the flow greatly retarded, and the growing season is
short for possible dry farming development. There is some complaint about the
affect of the lumbering operations and the sheep in relation to the stream flow,
and the range here as elsewhere is over-stocked. It is not believed that the
lumbering up to the present has injured the supply but evidently the forests on
the Snake range are acting effectively as a protection to the water supply and
if cut a great change would be noticeable. The creeks have a greater volume
before they emerge from the mountains than at the place where they are used.
Fluming would increase the acreage some. There are pipe lines conveying
water from the canyon immediately north of Wheeler Peak to Osceola on the
east side and also pipe lines from the canyon five miles north of Shoshone to
Osceola on the west side, both for the Osceola placers. There are no good
reservoir sites in these mountains and a great deal of water in the early spring
goes to waste. The cattle generally work up in the mountains in the latter part
of June and the poorest of the cattle are fed in the winter; others stay on the
snow on the foothills. The south side of the Snake range is not used much on
account of scarcity of water and the west side is generally too steep. Above
the timber line there is a great deal of barren country and nowhere was there
very much grass observed. Above 9,500 feet there are thickets of manzanita.
The flat top of Mt. Moraja is said to be excellent sheep range.27
27. "Report on the Proposed Ely, Steptoe, Osceola, and Snake National Forests, Nevada, by L. Von Wernstedt,
Forest Expert, Forest Service, 1906, General Land Office, Division "R," National Forests, Nevada, Record Group
49, Records of the Bureau of Land Management, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
169
Despite the obstacles to agricultural and grazing development in eastern Nevada, farming
and ranching expanded markedly in White Pine County between 1900 and 1910. The
construction of the Nevada Northern Railroad into Ely, the development of the copper
mines at Ruth, and the erection of the McGill Smelter early in the century put new life into
both farming and stockraising throughout the area. Distances were cut down for trailing
cattle to the railhead. Intensive farming operations were again resumed in the White River
Valley at the Mormon settlements of Lund and Preston.28
Between 1900 and 1910 the number of farms in White Pine County increased from 163 to
203, with 17 farms exceeding 1,000 acres in size. The amount of acreage in farms
increased from 85,075 to 109,631, and improved land in farms more than doubled from
34,448 acres to 77,833 acres. In 1910 1.9 percent of county land was in farms, and 71
percent of the farm land was improved. The average number of acres per farm was 540.1,
and the average number of improved acres per farm was 383.4. The value of all farm
property increased 147 percent during 1900-10 from $970,077 to $2,395,690.
Irrigation continued to be a major factor in White Pine County agricultural development.
During the years 1900 to 1910 the number of county farms using irrigation water increased
10.8 percent. Of the 203 county farms in 1910, 164 or 80.8 percent were irrigated with an
aggregate acreage of 32,795. The irrigation water was supplied from two principal sources
- streams by gravity (26,268 acres) and springs (6,507 acres).29
In 1911 the U.S. Forest Service surveyed Nevada National Forest and its environs for the
purpose of recommending additions and eliminations to the Snake Division and the northern
portion of the Schell Creek Division. During the course of their investigation Forest Service
officials made observations on the farming and grazing conditions in the area. Ranches
in the vicinity of the two divisions totaled some 10,000 acres. Farming and grazing were
considered the second and third most important industries in the area behind mining:
While at present most of the farming consists in raising hay and grain, by
stockmen, at their ranches, to feed stock over winter, the amount of land under
cultivation is very small, compared to what can be used. Spring valley and
Snake Valley - the valleys to the sides of the Moraja and Snake ranges - are
broad valleys, with abundance of rich soil; and, with better utilization of water
resources, adaption of crops, and improved agricultural methods, a very large
acreage should be brought under cultivation, and a splendid market for the
crops will be had.
There will always be a large amount of open valley land and mountain wooded
land available for raising stock on the range. At present about 24,000 sheep
28. Creel, History of Nevada Agriculture, p. 14.
29. U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States
Taken in the Year 1910: Statistics For Nevada (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1913), pp. 590, 605,
607, 609-10, 612, 617, 620, and Biennial Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register, 1909-1910,
pp. 55-62, 66, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1911, 25th Session, Vol. I.
For further information on the history of water development in the Snake Valley during the twentieth century see
State of Nevada, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Water Resources - Reconnaissance Series,
Report 34, Water Resources Appraisal of the Snake Valley Area, Utah and Nevada, by James W. Wood and F.
Eugene Rush, November, 1965, and U.S. Geological Survey in Cooperation with the Utah State Engineer and the
Nevada State Engineer, Utah State Engineer Technical Publication No. 14, Water-Resources Appraisal of the Snake
Valley Area, Utah and Nevada, by James W. Hood and F. Eugene Rush, 1965.
170
and 1,900 cattle use the range included in the present Forest, along with that
in the proposed additions.30
During the same year in which Forest Service officials were conducting their surveys a
newspaper reporter from Millard County, Utah, described Snake Valley as being "rich in
natural resources" and having "wonderfully productive soil." The valley, however, was
"sparsely settled" because of the "lack of transportation facilities." Elaborating further, the
writer noted:
It is a fine section for stock. It lies just west of the deseret that furnishes writer
pasture while the ranches provide pasture and hay for summer feeding.
The settlement of Burbank at the south end of Snake Valley consist of nine
ranches comprising something like 2000 acres on which hay and grain is raised,
much of the land being also used for pasture for horses and cattle. Hardy
vegetables of all kinds are also grown as well as small fruits.
The valley is watered by a beautiful stream known as Lake Creek, having its
rise in Big Spring and a number of smaller springs located over the Nevada
line.
Ten miles north of Burbank is the little settlement of Garrison comprising about
a dozen families.
Large crops of hay, grain, vegetables, alfalfa seed and some fruit are raised
here. Most of the ranches are watered from the reservoir to the south, but two
or three are watered by Snake Creek, a stream rising in the mountain to the
west.31
During the pre-World War I years there was a resurgence in agricultural development in
White Pine County following several years of decline after the turn of the century. In his
History of Nevada published in 1913 Sam P. Davis described this renewal of agricultural
activity and summarized the prospects for future growth:
For a long period the agricultural possibilities of the county were neglected, but
the "Back to the Soil" movement has been given considerable impetus in recent
years. Although numerous homesteads have been taken up lately, there are
still thousands of acres of farming land yet uncultivated. Unfailing streams
furnish a dependable water supply, the crops are certain, and the best market
in the State exists in the Ely district. The development of a market within easy
reach has resulted in renewed activity throughout the farming communities, and
the county in general is more prosperous now than at any time since the White
Pine district was in the halo of its glory.
The high mountains in the county receive a heavy precipitation of snow, and
yield a large amount of water that flows down into the valleys, moistening the
ground, producing excellent range for stock, and furnishing a good supply for
irrigation. Fruit-raising is no longer an experiment. One of the richest and
30. "A Report For Additions to and Eliminations From the Snake Division and the North End of the Schell
Creek Div. of the Nevada National Forest," March 16, 1911, L-Boundaries, Nevada, 1911, Record Group 95,
Records of the U.S. Forest Service, National Archives and Records Administration, San Francisco Branch, San
Bruno, California (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539).
31. Unidentified Newspaper Clipping, March 23, 1911, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park.
171
finest apple sections in the State is in Snake Valley. Many varieties of fruit
such as peaches and apricots do well here, and are sure of bearing. It is
claimed that there has not been a complete failure of the fruit crop in this
section for more than thirty years. Stock-raising has been an important industry
in the county, and some of the best ranges in the State are located here. . . .
Besides the stock owned in this county, thousands of sheep are annually driven
from Elko county and farther north to winter in the valleys of White Pine, where
the snowfall is always light, and the feed good.32
Livestock raising and ranching development increased markedly during World War I,
stimulated both by the rising demand for meat and wool as a result of the war and the
expanding mining operations at Ruth. While the cattle industry declined, sheep raising
grew by a significant margin. In 1920 the totals and values of livestock raised in the
county, as reported by the Nevada Tax Commission, were:
cattle
bulls
milch cows
work horses
saddle horses
stock horses
stallions
work mules
stock mules
jacks
burros
goats
sheep
bucks
hogs
pigs
poultry
Falling demand and prices for agricultural and livestock products during the 1920s and the
stock market crash in October 1929 left White Pine County farmers and ranchers in a
precarious condition by 1930. In that year county livestock totals, according to the Nevada
Tax Commission, were:
Total
Value per Head
10,662
$ 37.00
380
102.76
477
75.00
746
77.18
293
54.00
614
13.00
7
271.00
71
85.00
55
50.00
3
206.00
53
10.00
20
3.50
131,228
8.00
2,177
12.00
327
15.00
228
5.00
2,600
.S333
stock cattle
6,357
bulls
221
milch cows
162
horses (1,100 lbs. and up)
573
work horses (under 1,100 lbs)
491
saddle horses
319
stock horses
334
stallions
3
Total Value per Head
$ 28.00
53.73
120.50
51.72
32.50
41.50
5.00
100.00
32. Sam P. Davis, ed., The History of Nevada (Reno, The Elmo Publishing Company, 1913), pp. 1,059-60.
33. Biennial Report of the Nevada Tax Commission, 1919-20, pp. 68-73.
172
brood mares
25
burros
73
sheep
113,176
bucks
1,176
goats
487
hogs (over 8 months)
331
pigs (under 8 months)
28
poultry
1,248
bees
30
foxes
54
30.00
10.00
8.00
10.00
4.00
10.00
5.00
.31
5.00
50.0034
During the early and mid-1980s sheep raising continued to decline in White Pine County,
while cattle raising showed a marked rebound. By 1935 county ranches owned 101,730
sheep, or nearly 18 percent of the state's total. That same year it was reported that there
were 12,969 cattle in the county, or nearly 5-1/2 percent of the state's total.35
Drought conditions and grasshopper infestations resulted in a serious decline in agricultural
production in White Pine County during 1934-35. Severe rain shortages in 1934 resulted
in a severe decline in fruit production, particularly in peach orchards around Baker and in
peach and apple orchards in Spring Valley. During 1935 grasshopper infestations occurred
on crop lands in Spring, Steptoe, Lake, and Snake valleys and on range lands in the
Snake and Mount Moriah divisions of Nevada National Forest. The Baker area was
especially hard hit by the infestation. White Pine County received quantities of bran and
poison through a special appropriation passed by Congress. The infestation was thus
controlled, saving "ranchers of the county many dollars in feed produced on crop and range
lands."36
The most significant piece of New Deal legislation for Nevada ranchers was the Taylor
Grazing Act of 1934. The entire West was suffering from drought and depleted forage and
water conditions. There had been a catastrophic drop in the price paid for livestock,
declining some 50 percent between 1931 and 1933. In some areas livestock raisers felt
forced to make greater use of the open range, although some public lands were already
overgrazed. Recognizing that existing land laws were inadequate to bring about orderly
utilization and preservation of the public lands, Congress passed the Taylor Grazing Act to
provide a system for managing federal grazing resources and preserve the long-term
productivity of the public domain under the Department of the Interior. Grazing was to be
regulated through establishment of grazing districts and issuance of grazing permits for the
purpose of stopping "injury to the public grazing lands by preventing overgrazing and soil
deterioration," providing "for their orderly use, improvement, and development," and
stabilizing "the livestock industry dependent upon the public range."
Subsequently, six grazing districts were established in Nevada. These districts were:
No. 1 - Elko County - April 8, 1935
No. 2 - Humboldt, Pershing, and Upper Washoe counties - October 18, 1935
34. Biennial Report of the Nevada Tax Commission, 1929-30, pp. 25-31.
35. Sawyer, Nevada Nomads, p. 78.
36. "Annual Narrative Report, 1935, by C.R. Townsend, County Extension Agent, For the Period of November
1, 1934, to October 31, 1935, Ely, Nevada," pp. 22-23, and University of Nevada, Agricultural Extension Division,
White Pine County, Nevada, "Annual Report for the Period From November 1, 1934 to October 31, 1935," Hellen
M. Gillette, District Extension Agent, p. 8, Manuscripts Division, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
173
No. 3 - Storey, Ormsby, Douglas, Lyon, Mineral, and portions of Washoe and
Churchill counties - November 3, 1936
No. 4 - White Pine County and portions of Lincoln County - November 3, 1936
No. 5 - Clark County - November 3, 1936
No. 6 - Lander, Eureka, and Nye counties - February 9, 195137
By 1939, however, the state of farmers in White Pine County had become bleak. It was
reported that there were 168 farms in the county. Many of these families were of Spanish
and French Basque extraction. They were "deeply in debt, because of unwise expansion
or investments, or because of drought and a fall in the commodity prices." A large number
of the farmers had "been forced on the W.P.A." for economic survival.38
The state of Nevada and White Pine County agriculture and stockraising as well as the
impact of the Taylor Grazing Act on range management were summarized in Nevada: A
Guide to the Silver State in 1940. Compiled by the Writers' Program of the Works Projects
Administration, the book contained the following observations on Nevada farming and
ranching:
Fourteen of Nevada's counties derive a major part of their income from stock-
growing and from farming - principally the production of wild hay, alfalfa, and
some grain, all for cattle-feeding. In many counties cattle and sheep are of
almost equal importance.
The large ranches are chiefly in Elko, Humboldt, Eureka, and White Pine
counties, with acreages running from six thousand to more than one hundred
thousand acres. But the privately owned lands of the State comprise only about
one-seventh of the total, the cattle ranches being principally meadow along
streams, some winter range, and varied lands ensuring control of water. Nearly
all the grazing area is public domain. The United States Forest Service
administers most of the higher lands, where stock is summered, and the United
States Grazing Service the remainder. All grazing on the public lands is now
carried on by individual permits specifying the number of stock that can be
taken into an area and the length of time the herds and bands may remain.
The fees charged for use of the public lands are usually less than the tax
assessments on adjoining privately owned tracts. To a considerable extent,
priority on the use of areas belongs to the outfits that can prove they have used
them for a number of years, and cattle and sheep men are busy amassing
affidavits from prospectors and other nomads to prove long continued use of
this and that valley, slope, and water-hole, in hope of obtaining permits for more
than one season at a time.39
37. Nevada State Office, Bureau of Land Management, Taylor Grazing Act In Nevada, 1934-1984 ([Reno],
1984), n.p., and University of Nevada, Agricultural Extension Service, Bulletin 77, Setting Up Taylor Grazing Districts
In Nevada, by Thomas E. Buckman, June 30, 1937, pp. 1-139. To administer the lands in the grazing districts a
Division of Grazing was established in the Department of the Interior in January 1935. On August 26, 1939, the
division was renamed the Grazing Service. In 1946 the General Land Office and the Grazing Service merged to
form the Bureau of Land Management.
38. Virginia Starkweather, "Social Security in Nevada, IV: In White Pine County, Nevada," Proceedings of
the National Conference of Social Work, 1939, 483-84, and Virginia Starkweather, "Prospecting for Social Security,"
Survey Midmonthly, LXXV (October 1939), 311.
39. Writer's Program of the Works Projects Administration, Nevada: A Guide to the Silver State (Portland,
Oregon, Binfords & Mort, 1940), pp. 64-65.
174
World War II and the immediate postwar years resulted in a rising demand for agricultural
products. Thus, the 1940s saw a steady growth in agricultural production in White Pine
County. While cattle raising nearly doubled during the decade, sheep raising declined by
one-third. Between 1940 and 1950 the number of acres under cultivation in the county
increased from 4,844 to 9,808. During the same period lands classified as meadow and
wild hay increased from 4,346 to 4,647, as pasture from 9,707 to 15,846, and grazing from
61,177 to 100,682. The numbers and value of livestock increased as follows:
1940 1950
No. Value per Head No. Value per Head
stock cattle
64,078
$ 22.50
13,066
$ 34.48
bulls
174
50.00
441
77.04
milch cows
667
42.58
625
52.25
horses (1,100 lbs.
and up)
42
80.00
work horses (under
1,100 lbs.)
422
50.00
work horses
288
48.95
saddle horses
219
50.00
299
47.86
stock horses
290
20.00
366
19.23
stallions
5
85.00
9
100.00
work mules
7
75.71
stock mules
3
20.00
burros
21
10.00
2
10.00
sheep
64,078
4.00
42,600
6.45
bucks
764
10.00
455
15.00
goats
674
4.00
213
4.88
hogs (over
8 months)
98
10.00
155
10.00
pigs (under
8 months)
111
4.00
274
5.00
poultry
2,225
.43
3,383
.50
bees
40
3.00
6
2.0040
By the mid-1950s the number of farms in White Pine County had decreased, while the size
of the farms and the acreage harvested and irrigated had increased. In 1954, for instance,
a special Nevada agriculture census found that there were 148 farms comprising 259,609
acres. This acreage amounted to 4.6 percent of the total land in the county. Some 22,283
acres were irrigated, and 17,610 acres were harvested. The average farm was 1,754
acres, and the average number of acres per farm being irrigated was 150.6 and harvested
was 119. In terms of farm types the 148 farms were classified as livestock (95), general
(16), dairy (5), poultry (5), and miscellaneous/unclassified (27).
In 1954 hay continued to be one of the principal crops in White Pine County. The types
of hay harvested were:
Alfalfa - 8,196 acres/16,733 tons
Clo-Tim Mixtures - 145 acres/228 tons
Small grains cut for hay - 274 acres/473 tons
Wild hay cut - 7,598 acres/6,687 tons
40. Annual Reports of the Nevada Tax Commission, 1940, pp. 18-29, and 1950, pp. 30-40.
175
Other hay cut - 30 acres/30 tons
Total - 16,243 acres/24,151 tons
Small grains continued to be a minor factor in White Pine County agriculture in 1954.
The totals for such crops were:
Wheat - 171 acres/4,511 bushels
Oats - 403 acres/7,497 bushels
Barley - 530 acres/14,900 bushels
Livestock totals for the county were higher in 1954 than they had been for some years.
The types and number of livestock raised were:
Cattle and calves - 25,012
Milk cows - 642
Horses and mules - 1 ,236
Hogs -612
Sheep and lambs - 77,132 (wool shorn - 610,215 pounds)
Chickens (4 months and over ) - 6,825
Turkeys - 312
Ducks - 63
The value of all farm products sold by White Pine County farmers in 1954 totaled
$1,807,111, or about 5-1/2 percent of the state's total. The statistical breakdown for this
total was:
Dairy products - $125,652
Poultry and poultry products - $24,333
All other livestock and livestock products - $1 ,623,436
Crops - $33,440
Field Crops - $29,258
Vegetables - $2,500
Fruits and Nuts - $1 ,682
The average value of land and buildings per farm was $44,100, while the average value
per acre of land in farms was $23.51.
The need for adequate water supplies has continued to be critical to the livestock industry
in Snake and Spring valleys. As part of the Soil and Moisture Conservation Program of
the Department of the Interior, the U.S. Geological Survey conducted hydrological studies
of stock water development in the Ely Grazing District in 1 963. Concerning Snake Valley
the study stated:
The Nevada part of Snake Valley consists of two embayments, one near Baker
in White Pine County, and a second in Lincoln County between the Snake
Range and the Wilson Creek Range. The valley is drained and opens to the
Great Salt Lake Desert of Utah.
41. E.E. Wittwer, Nevada Agriculture: Bulletin 210 (Reno, University of Nevada, Max C. Fleischmann College
of Agriculture), May 1960, pp. 12-19, 30-31, 34-35, 52-59, 66-71, 84-85, 94-95.
176
STOCK-WATER SUPPUES
Wells and springs are used to furnish water for stock and for irrigation. Most
of the valley is well watered except for an area between the State line and the
White Rock Mountains.
SPRINGS
Fourteen springs in Snake Valley and the adjoining mountains are listed. . . .
These range from small seeps that provide water for a few cows to Big Spring
. . . which has an estimated discharge of 9 or 10 cfs. Big Spring is used for
irrigation.
WELLS
Eleven wells have been dug or drilled in the Nevada part of Snake Valley, and
about 35 have been drilled in the Utah section.
Wells in the valley fill range in depth from 70 feet to 240 feet and in depth to
water from 26 feet in 175 feet.
Both embayments are well supplied with water. If additional water is required
on the valley floor, well sites can be located on the basis of conditions found
in nearby wells.
The study included data on the hydrology stock water development in Spring Valley.
Among other things, it stated:
Spring Valley is a topographically closed, hydrologically undrained basin in which
the water table is close to the land surface. The valley is filled with alluvium
interbedded with lacustrine sedimentary deposits that accumulated during the
Pleistocene and Recent epochs.
Drainage is toward the playa on the valley floor, but the waters of many of the
spring-fed streams from the mountains are lost by evaporation or by seepage
on the alluvial fans.
STOCK-WATER SUPPUES
Wells, springs, reservoirs, and mountain streams furnish water for stock. In
addition, spring-fed streams furnish irrigation water along both sides of the
valley.
SPRINGS
Springs, mostly arising either along the outer margins of the alluvial fans or in
the mountains, furnish small to medium amounts of water for ranch and stock
use. The range of use of several springs has been increased by pipelines
from the springs to areas where the water is needed.
RESERVOIRS
Stock reservoirs play only a minor part in the water economy. Ten stock
reservoirs have been built in the valley in addition to two irrigation reservoirs
that are open to stock.
177
WELLS
Thirty-four wells have been drilled or dug. Most of these provide water for stock
use but some supply irrigation or mining needs. Spring Valley has been
explored for water about as thoroughly as any similar area in the district, and
successful wells seem to have been obtained wherever attempted.42
According to a study of Nevada's economic profile conducted by the Bureau of Land
Management in 1974, White Pine County was "little dependent on the agricultural industry."
Only 3.4 percent of the county's total income or approximately $777,000 originated from
farming and ranching. In 1969 the value of all agricultural products sold (cash receipts) in
the district amounted to $2,500,000, an amount that comprised 3 percent of the state's total
and was the smallest county total in Nevada. Meat animal production accounted for more
than 85 percent of the total agricultural production of the county, compared to a state
average of 75 percent.43
EARLY SETTLERS AND RANCHING OPERATIONS IN SNAKE VALLEY
The purpose of this section will be the presentation of documentary materials on the early
settlers and ranching operations in Snake and Spring valleys.
Samuel Hockman
Although documentation is somewhat inconclusive local accounts generally agree that the
Samuel Hockman family was the first to settle permanently in Snake Valley. In April 1869,
while passing through eastern Nevada with a herd of Durham cattle on their way from Iowa
to California, the Hockmans, of Pennsylvania Dutch extraction, arrived in Snake Valley,
finding grass, water, good soil, and a relatively mild climate. Tired after wintering in Round
Valley they decided to remain. They established a small ranch along lower Lake Creek
south of present-day Garrison and later moved to Weaver Creek. Their third child, Brick,
was born in November, thus becoming the first Euroamerican baby born in the valley.
Mrs. Hockman wrote friends in Iowa that she lived in the valley for eighteen months before
she saw another white woman.44
Absalom S. Lehman
The best known of the early settlers in Snake Valley was Absalom S. Lehman who would
later gain renown as the discoverer and early developer of Lehman Caves. Absalom, the
second child of Abraham and Catherine Lehman of Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, was born
January 6, 1827. When he was fourteen years old his family moved west to Canal
Winchester, Ohio, several miles south of Columbus. According to the Lehman family
42. U.S. Geological Survey, Hydrology of Stock-Water Development in the Ely Grazing District, Nevada,
Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1475-L (Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963), pp. 403-04,
414-15.
43. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Nevada's Economic Profile, by Ronald D.
Fellows, James R. Garrett, and Geraldine Link, June 1974, pp. 8, 18.
44. "History of Ranching in Millard County (Snake Valley Country), As Told By Mrs. E.W. Clay, Burbank,
Utah," in Day and Ekins, comps., Milestones of Millard, p. 180.
178
genealogy, the trip was made in a one-horse covered wagon on which the younger children
rode. Absalom, his parents, and older sister are said to have walked much of the way.
In 1849 Absalom headed west to participate in the California Gold Rush. After an
unsuccessful venture there, he took a ship to Australia in 1850 or 1851 where he
developed a gold mine and established several wool stores.
While in Australia he married Mary Gardner, an English woman, and the couple had two
daughters, Lucy and Martha, while living in Victoria. After the death of Mary and Martha
in 1861, Absalom returned to Idaho to the home of his brother Jacob. He engaged in
mining with his brother for some years before leaving his daughter Lucy with his brother
and moving first to California and then Snake Valley.
Some doubt exists concerning the exact year of his arrival in the valley, family accounts
inferring that this may have been as early as 1866 or 1867. A military map prepared by
the George M. Wheeler expedition in 1869 shows a Lehman Ranch on Weaver Creek,
some ten miles north of present-day Lehman Caves.45
Little is known of Lehman's ranch on Weaver Creek, which he soon sold to David Weaver.
Later in 1869 he returned to Ohio where he married 21 -year-old Olive Smith. By the fall
of 1870 he was back in Nevada living on Lehman Creek about 1-1/2 miles below present-
day Lehman Caves. In 1873 Lehman's brother, Ben, arrived with his wife Mary and settled
on lower Firbush Creek at the site of present-day Baker. Sam D. Smith, Olive's brother,
also moved to the valley about this time.
Absalom and Olive had three children. Laura Nevada was born in Hamilton in 1871,
Franklin Smith was born at Pioche in 1874, and Lawrence was born "near Osceola" in
1878. Laura and Frank grew up on the Lehman Creek ranch, having Indian children as
playmates, but Lawrence died in 1880 at the age of two years.
By 1875 Lehman and his brother had developed a copartnership to operate a dairy in
addition to a fruit orchard and large garden. They had 25 to 30 cows and churned butter
using a water wheel Absalom had constructed. The Lehmans sold products from their
ranch to mining camps throughout the area, and on one trip marketed 350 pounds of
butter. The large garden and orchard were supplemented with wild fruits, especially
strawberries. The copartnership was dissolved in June 1877, and by 1880 Absalom had
hired two hands to help him operate the growing ranch.46
The first formal land survey in Snake Valley was conducted by W.N. McGill on November
28-29, 1878, for the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. The survey map produced by McGill
shows that the Lehman Ranch was located along Lehman Creek about four miles west of
present-day Baker and indicates that Lehman had used the waters of Lehman Creek
continuously since 1869.47
45. Map Showing Detailed Topography of the Country Traversed by the Reconnaissance Expedition Through
Southern & Southeastern Nevada in Charge of Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, U.S. Engineers, Assisted by Lieut. O.W.
Lockwood, Corps of Engineers USA, 1869. P.W. Hamel, Chief Topographer and Draughtsman. (Map on file in
Special Collections Division, Marriott Library, University of Utah, Salt Lake City).
46. Keith A. Trexler, "Absalom S. Lehman," 1965, pp. 1-3, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park; Laura
Lehman Mellenbruch, The Genealogy of the Lehman Family (Willcox, Arizona, Ruth Mellenbruch, 1943), pp. 9-13;
and Ward Reflex, June 10, 1877.
47. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Map, 1878, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park. The original survey
map made by McGill is on file in the Land Office Plat Book at the U.S. Bureau of Land Management in Reno,
Nevada.
179
Lehman had other interests besides his ranching operation. He staked a mining claim in
Osceola soon after gold was discovered in 1872, and during the early 1880s he served on
the Republican County Central Committee and White Pine County Grand Jury.
The rugged frontier existence in eastern Nevada took its toll on Olive Lehman, and in 1881
she and the children traveled to Ohio. When his wife became very ill, Absalom returned
to Ohio to be with her until she died of tuberculosis in September 1883. Leaving the
children, whom he would not see again, with relatives, he returned to Snake Valley.
Although documentation is inconclusive as to the exact date and circumstances of
Lehman's discovery of the cave that would bear his name, it is generally agreed that he
made his discovery during the spring of 1885.49 On April 25, for instance, the White Pine
News reported:
The Reflex says: A.S. Lehman, of Snake Valley, reports that he and others
have struck a cave of wondrous beauty on his ranch near Jeff Davis Peak.
Stalactites of extraordinary size hang from its roof and stalagmites equally large
rear their heads from its floor. A stalactite, weighing about 500 pounds, has
been taken from the cave and planted beside the monument erected by Ivers
to mark the spot where he observed the last transit of Venus on Lehman's
ranch. The cave was explored for abut 200 feet when the points of the
stalactites and stalagmites were so close together as to offer a bar to their
further progress. They will again explore the cave armed with sledge hammers
and break their way into what appears to be another chamber.50
During the spring and summer of 1885 Lehman began to advertise his discovery and serve
as a guide for persons wishing to tour the cave. By early September some 800 persons
had visited the cavern. On September 4 the editor of the Genoa Weekly Courier published
an article describing one of Lehman's guided tours through the cave which the author
concluded was "equal to the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky:"
Last Sunday a party of ladies and gentlemen, myself included, went to explore
the cave. It is situated at the foot of Jeff Davis Peak, about two miles from
Mr. Abe Leman's ranch. Mr. Leman acted as our guide. Each of our party was
provided with a candle and we started on our tour of inspection, or exploration.
The mouth of this grand natural curiosity is about 35 feet in circumference. To
enter it we descended by means of a ladder a distance of 15 feet, and found
ourselves in a large cavern. We then wrote our names on a large board, and
lighting our candles, crept through a hole in the solid rock, which was just large
enough to admit one person at a time. After descending another ladder, we
entered a lofty chamber, about 50 feet in height and 40 feet in width. It was
hung with stalactites of great beauty and of every shape imaginable, and
weighing from an ounce to several thousand pounds. Stalagmites arose from
the floor like huge statues. Columns of stalactites of a dark grey color and
extending from floor to ceiling, as if placed there by the hand of an architect,
to support the ceiling. After admiring this magnificent gallery, we proceeded
48. Mellenbruch, Genealogy of the Lehman Family, pp. 9-13, and Trexler, "Absalom S. Lehman," p. 4.
49. For further data on the discovery and early development of Lehman Caves see U.S. Department of the
Interior, National Park Service, Lehman Caves . ... Its Human Story, by Keith A. Trexler, Updated Through 1975
By NPS Staff, 1977, pp. 11-22.
50. White Pine Daily News, April 25, 1885.
180
through a very narrow hall-way, or natural corridor, several hundred feet in
length, and winding around through the mountain in circuitous route. Other
caverns branching off from the main one several hundred feet were followed up
by some of the most venturesome of the party. A small lake was discovered
in one of these side caves and the water was very pure and clear; to reach it
we had to creep on our hands and knees. As we advanced the cave grew
damper and some of the stalactites were dripping. At one spot in the cave
there was a draught of air so strong as to almost extinguish our candles. There
is another remarkable feature in this cave, called the "Music Gallery." A long
gallery hung at the top with small stalactites of a white chalky color. From the
ceiling of the cave on each side are stalactites of a flat shape reaching down
to the floor. By drawing a piece of broken stalactite across them all a sound
was produced greatly resembling the music of a piano, each stalactite having
a different sound. After leaving the "Music Gallery" we ascended by climbing
over rocks and by means of ropes, into another series of galleries and
chambers. The farther we advanced now the whiter and more crystal-like were
the stalagmites and stalactites. After going as far as we could conveniently, we
got some beautiful specimens and retraced our steps; but we never could have
found our way out had we not had an experienced guide with us, for there were
so many different galleries. I heard Mr. Leman say that the distance we had
penetrated the cave was 1 ,500 feet, measured by himself. Since we were there
a place has been blasted out with giant powder, in order to give better access
to what is termed the most beautiful part of the cave. Mr. Leman is making
new discoveries all the time, and there is no telling how large or extensive this
cave is. Some think that it extends miles into the mountain. I have heard
people who have visited the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, say that this one is
as large and excels in beauty that noted cave. I think in time, new discoveries
will make it one of the great attractions of Eastern Nevada. After leaving the
cave, we spread our lunch out under a tree and had a delightful picnic.51
The following month (October 3) the White Pine Daily News printed an article comparing
Lehman Caves with Luray Caverns in Virginia. The article noted:
During the past few weeks many citizens of Taylor have visited and explored
the wonderful cave recently discovered on Lehman's ranch in Snake Valley in
this county, and all unite in praise of its wondrous beauty and enchanting
scenery.
From the accounts we have been given of it, there is but one cave in the
United States that can near approach it in grandeur and magnificence, and that
is the caverns of Luray, in the Appalachian mountains in Page county, Virginia,
and so graphically described and illustrated by Ralph S. Tarr in the September
number of Leslie's Popular Monthly, and even Mr. Tarr, with all his great
descriptive powers and the geological knowledge he evinces, could not possibly
do justice to the Lehman Cave. And yet these two caves are almost a facsimile
in their origin, their vast dimensions and in the great variety of the enhancing
scenery which on every turn meets the vision of the explorer. Mr. Tarr's fine
description of the ornamentation of the Luray by carbonaceous stalactites,
stalagmites, calcareous tufa, travertine, cave pearls and calcite crystals would
not do half justice to the Lehman Cave.52
51. Genoa Weekly Courier, September 4, 1885.
52. White Pine Daily News, October 3, 1 885.
181
Lehman and several men worked in the cave during the winter of 1885-86, opening up
narrow passages and building stairways to replace ladders to enable tourists to more easily
tour the natural wonder. In April 1886 it was reported that "ladies can walk right through
[the cave] without fatigue." Lehman was also "prepared to entertain man and beast," and
thus the White Pine Daily News predicted that "a great many people will visit the great
natural wonder during the coming summer."53
Lehman continued his farming operations while developing the cave. The primary markets
for his agricultural produce continued to be the various mining communities in eastern
Nevada. In July 1886, for instance, the White Pine Daily News, whose offices were then
in the mining town of Taylor, reported:
A.S. Lehman, of Snake Valley, the owner of the famous cave, sent us in the
fore part of this week, the first new potatoes that came to town. They were of
good size and flavor. Such a compliment is duly appreciated by ye local.54
Sometime after discovering the cave Lehman determined to sell his 600-acre ranch on
Lehman Creek and move 1-1/2 miles to a small 7-acre site just below the mouth of the
cavern.55 The move would permit him to devote more of his time to developing the cave
and guiding and entertaining tourists. As early as mid-October 1887 Lehman began listing
advertisements in local newspapers that his ranch was for sale. The advertisements, which
would appear in newspapers periodically for almost four years, described the extensive
development of his lower ranch on Lehman Creek as containing
Six Hundred Acres
Of choice meadow and arable land, and is well-watered by a never-failing spring
sufficient to irrigate 500 acres. The ranch is well-fenced by six miles of fencing,
and is conveniently subdivided into hay meadows, pasturage, orchards, and
cultivated fields. There is a fine young orchard of 800 trees.
Of different fruits on the place, one hundred of which are now bearing, and the
rest will soon be. The ranch is well supplied with outbuildings, comprising
stables, blacksmith shop, carpenter shop, butcher shop, and is also well-
equipped with an abundant supply of the best corrals. It is one of the finest
dairy ranches in this section of the country, and has a good Rock Milk House,
with all the necessary equipments, including a churn run by water power.56
While attempting to sell his home ranch on Lehman Creek, Absalom apparently began
developing his upper "Cave Ranche." Documentation is inconclusive, but it seems likely
53. White Pine Daily News, April 17, 1886.
54. White Pine Daily News, July 3, 1886.
55. The 7-acre "homestead" was never filed upon by Lehman and did not include the entrance to the cave.
Thus, the cavern's entrance has always been in public ownership.
56. White Pine Daily News, January 7, 1888.
182
that Lehman began planting a fruit orchard and grazing cattle below the mouth of the cave
at some point during the mid-1 880s.57
Lehman's orchard and grazing operations at his "Cave Ranche" required irrigation water.
Thus, sometime around 1887 he constructed what has come to be known as the Lehman
Ditch or Aqueduct, using earth and rock dams and wooden gates to collect and divert water
from Cave Spring, Lehman Creek, and South Spring to his "Cave Ranche."58
Although portions of the original ditch have disappeared as a result of recent park
development projects and natural erosion has enlarged its dimensions, much of the two-
mile aqueduct still survives. The original dimensions of the ditch were probably 1-1/4 feet
wide and 1 foot deep, although in some places it may have been as wide as 1-1/2 feet.
The slope of the ditch was approximately 400 feet, enough to permit water to run easily
toward the cave area.59
Lehman finally sold his ranch on Lehman Creek to Charles W. Rowland for $3,000 on
September 1, 1891. Rowland and his family had recently moved to Garrison from
St. George, Utah. Absalom soon became ill with the grippe, however, and on October 11
he died of complications resulting from pneumonia at St. Mark's Hospital in Salt Lake City.
Following his death at the age of 64 he was buried at Mt. Olivet Cemetery in that city.
Apparently, Lehman's "Cave Ranche" was largely undeveloped at the time of his death.
The tax assessment books for White Pine County in 1891 and 1892 listed the following
details of his 7-acre ranch at the cave:
57. Ely Daily Times, September 5, 1958. The size of the original Lehman orchard at the "Cave Ranche" has
not been determined. In January 1934 the National Park Service described the orchard as consisting of more than
forty apricot, apple, peach, and pear trees with peach trees ranging in size of 16-24 inches in diameter and apple
trees up to 20 inches in diameter. Later that year Civil Works Administration personnel cut down and dug up many
of the trees in the orchard because they were dead or dying as the result of drought and insect infestation. A
photograph taken in 1937 shows a small picnic area/campground in the orchard area, and a photograph taken in
August 1940 shows a minimum of 18 trees and refers to the area as the "Apple Orchard." The picnic area
remained in the orchard until at least the early 1950s, when most of the picnic tables were relocated adjacent to
the Lehman Pond. In 1975 the Lehman Orchard, consisting of seven apricot trees, two pear trees, and one peach
tree, was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. Memorandum, Regional Director, Western Region to
Acting Assistant Director, Park Historic Preservation, March 12, 1975, H34, National Survey and National Landmarks,
and Lehman Caves National Monument, Orchard Management Plan, July 1986, pp. 5-7, H30, Lehman Orchard
Restoration, Central Files, Great Basin National Park.
58. For further data on the history of water rights for the two Lehman ranches see Appendix M. More detailed
information on this topic may be found in "A Review of the Records of the Water Rights Section Relating to Water
Supply Problems at Lehman Caves National Monument," by A. van V. Dunn, Hydraulic Engineer, September 19,
1940, File No. 660-05.7, Central Files, 1933-49, National Monuments, Record Group 79, Records of the National
Park Service, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
59. Jeff Babcock, "The Lehman Ditch, Lehman Caves National Monument, August 1978," pp. 1-3, Vertical
Files, Great Basin National Park. The settling pond below South Spring and the large pond or reservoir may have
been constructed around 1900. The Lehman Ditch from the settling pond to the Cave Spring area was used until
the early 1940s, and at some point a pipeline was used from the settling pond to the large pond, but it is not known
when it replaced the lower portion of the ditch. Uses of the impounded water in the large pond included cattle
watering, irrigation for alfalfa and the orchard, fishing (stocked), cutting of ice in winter, and swimming in summer.
The Lehman Aqueduct was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.
60. White Pine Daily News, October 17, 24, 1891; Merwin G. Fairbanks, ed., Selected Personality Profiles,
Volume No. 2 (Provo, Brigham Young University, 1976), pp. 47-49; and Trexler, "Absalom S. Lehman," p. 6. See
Appendix N for the entry for Lehman in the 1891 White Pine County Tax Assessment book.
183
1891
7 acres at Lehmans Cave with improvements
Value of Real Estate - $7
Value of Improvements - $200
1892
Estate of A.S. Lehman
7 acres of land known as the Lehman Cave Ranch with improvements
2 work horses $100
25 stock horses $250
3 stock cattle $ 35
Value of Real Estate $ 40
Value of Improvements $200
Value of Personal Property $385
Total Value $625 61
On November 15, 1892, the District Court of the State of Nevada, White Pine County,
authorized the sale of the cave property by W.N. McGill, administrator for Absalom's estate.
Pursuant to the court order McGill announced that a public auction would be held on April
1, 1893, at which the personal property and other interests of Lehman were to be sold.
The advertisement for the public auction read:
At one o'clock p.m., at the Lehman Ranch, near Lehman's Cave, in said county,
the following personal property to wit:
The Farming Implements, Household Furniture, Kitchen Utensils, Six Thousand
Shingles, One Set Hewed House Logs, Spring Wagon, one Cart, two Cows, one
calf, fourteen Brood Mares with seven Colts, four three-year old Colts, two
Horses, ten two-year old Colts, and one Stallion.
Also, all the right, title, interest and estate of the said A.S. Lehman at the time
of his death, or that said estate has since acquired, in and to that certain lot,
piece or parcel of land, situate, lying and being in the said County of White
Pine, and known as the A.S. Lehman's Ranch, and the improvements thereon,
which said Ranch is situated about twenty miles from Osceola, as being the
land occupied by the said A.S. Lehman at the time of his death.
The terms and conditions of said sale are cash or its equivalent on delivery of
possession.62
Apparently, Lehman's alleged title to the "Cave Ranche" was questioned (Absalom never
filed a homestead claim on the land) and was thus not sold at the auction. Finally, on
November 20, 1895, the cave property was sold for $700 to Charles W. Rowland, the
purchaser of Lehman's 600-acre ranch several years earlier. Rowland maintained the two
ranches until his death in January 1905, apparently planting additional trees in the orchard
near the cave and perhaps constructing or enlarging the pond or reservoir at the "Cave
61. Assessment Books, White Pine County, 1891-1892, Nevada State Library and Archives, Division of Archives
and Records, Carson City.
62. White Pine Daily News, March 11, April 1, 1893.
184
Ranche." An article in the White Pine Daily News on September 4, 1897, described
several events on the Rowland properties:
The vandals who have made it a business to rob orchards, still keep up their
reputation. The orchard on the Cave ranch, belonging to C.W. Rowland, was
robbed of over two hundred pounds of pears, last week.
Mr. C. W. Rowland has treated himself to a new cider mill. He promises the
people of Ely some good cider in a few days.63
After Rowland's death in January 1905, his wife held the two ranches until 1911 when
she sold them to P.M. (Doc) Baker. In 1905 the White Pine County Assessment Book had
the following listing for the estate of Charles W. Rowland:
Home Ranch on Lehman Creek - 600 acres and 7 acres on Cave Creek
Furniture - $50
Organ - $40
Work & Saddle Horses - $150
Harness - $40
Milch Cows - $100
Stock Cattle - $1 ,690
Hogs - $50
Wagons & Machinery - $ 170
$2,29064
The following year both the 600- and 7-acre ranches were listed under the name of Mrs.
C.W. Rowland in the county assessment book, and in 1908 the 600-acre ranch was
described as consisting of 150 acres of cultivated land and 450 acres of pasture and
brush. In 1910, the year before Mrs. Rowland sold her two ranches to Baker, her property
was listed in the county assessment book:
Furniture & Organ
1 Work Horse
2 Stock Horses
Harness
2 Cows
8 Stock Cattle
5 Hogs
Wagons
Machinery65
Willard Burbank
During the fall of 1870 Willard Burbank, his mother, and sister settled several miles south
of present-day Garrison in the meadows near Preuss Lake. Burbank patented land in the
vicinity and was soon joined by his sister, Lizzie Schumacher. In addition to raising cattle
63. Trexler, Lehman Caves . ... Its Human Story, pp. 10, 21-22, and White Pine Daily News, September
4, 1897, March 22, 1900, and January 19, 1905.
64. Assessment Book, 1905, White Pine County, White Pine County Courthouse, Ely, Nevada.
65. Assessment Books, 1905, 1906, 1908, 1909, 1910, White Pine County, White Pine County Courthouse,
Ely.
185
Burbank was a civil engineer and conducted surveys of the lake for the construction of a
dam. In 1875 an earthen fill dam was built for the purpose of storing water from Lake
Creek and utilizing it to irrigate farms in Snake Valley. By 1891 Burbank owned 800 acres
of land known locally as the Clover Ranch.66
The dam, which created the largest water storage and diversion project in the area, was
not without its problems. In March 1883, for instance, the dam broke, and many Snake
Valley ranchers suffered crop losses. The Ward Weekly Reflex reported on March 28 of
that year:
The dam on Lehman's Creek [Lake Creek] broke loose a few days ago and
flooded the country. Mr. Lehman thinks the crops in Snake Valley will be next
to nothing this year. The quantity of water turned loose may be imagined when
it is stated that the dam was half a mile long.67
The dam was later rebuilt using more substantial building materials. During reconstruction
of the dam bricks from a kiln recently established in middle Snake Creek Canyon by Rufus
Pack and Nicholas Paul may have been used.68
George W. Baker
In 1876 the George W. Baker family moved to Snake Valley and soon established the
foundations of what would become one of the largest ranches in the area. The family
included his wife Maria Louisa Mathews, five sons (Howard, Harry, Martin, Thomas, and
P.M. "Doc"), and one daughter Mary. George and Maria were both born in Virginia but
grew up in Missouri. Prior to the Civil War the Bakers were a wealthy family, but postwar
reprisals for their Confederate sympathies and heavy debts forced them into bankruptcy in
1873. That year the Bakers moved to Salt Lake City where George engaged in a three-
year ore hauling and freighting contract. In 1876 the family moved to Fountain Green,
Utah, where George heard tales of the White Pine County mining discoveries. Intending
to contract for freighting services and selling produce, Baker soon leased the Smith and
Curtis farm at Firbush (present-day Baker) Creek in Snake Valley with a five-year option
to purchase and began hauling hay, grain, and produce to the mine owners at Pioche. In
1879 Baker purchased the Smith and Curtis farm, and by 1891 he owned some 800 acres
in Snake Valley on which he raised some 275 beef cattle, 12 milk cows, and 29 horses.
When George died in 1904 his ranch, which had become one of the largest cattle
operations in Snake Valley, was known for its "productivity" and the "excellence of its fruits
and vegetables."69
The handwritten reminiscences of George W. Baker provide interesting and poignant
glimpses into the development and operation of the Baker Ranch during the late 1890s
and early 1900s. Several excerpts from these reminiscences provide insights into the self-
66. Denys M. Baker, "Early History of Snake Valley," n.d., n.p., Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park;
Read, White Pine Lang Syne, pp. 138-39; and Assessment Book, White Pine County, 1891, Nevada State Archives,
Carson City.
67. Ward Weekly Reflex, March 28, 1883.
68. Read, White Pine Lang Syne, p. 144, and Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National Park," Part II, pp. 616-
17. Remains of the kiln may be seen about 1-1/4 miles west of the Spring Creek Fish Hatchery.
69. White Pine Daily News, May 26, 1904, and Assessment Book, White Pine County, 1891, Nevada State
Archives, Carson City.
186
sufficiency of the ranch, the types of crops grown, the handling of cattle, and the planting
and harvesting of alfalfa.
The ranch was an extensive self-sustaining operation. According to Baker, it was self-
supporting,
and vegetables, meats, fruits were raised and taken care of through the summer
and fall months. All kinds of fruits were put up fresh, which ran into hundreds
of quarts and half gallons. Preserves were put into 5 gal. crock jars with tight
lids.
The vegetables were all stored in the root or potato cellar which was 20 x 30
feet.
Hogs were butchered in the fall, cut up into shoulders, hams, and side meat.
The lard was rendered, put into 5 gal. crock jars, sealed with wax, and tight
covers. The pork was put into 50 gal. wooden barrels with a salt brine. After
about 30 days or when cured it was taken out, hung up, afterward, smoked with
corn cobs, or bark.
About the only time there wasn't a beef hanging in the meat house was during
the hot weather, even then a small critter was often killed if they grew tired of
bacon, ham, or shoulders. Head cheese and sausage were also made and
packed in crock containers. These were used during the winter months to
prevent spoiling.
Baker's commissary consisted of flour by the tons, salt in 500 #, arbuckles
coffee in 100 # sacks, which had to be ground by hand. Tea in 50 # boxes,
raisins in 50 #, many other things as black pepper which had to be ground in
the coffee mill.
All vegetables were made ready for the cook by squaws. They made ready the
indian table, swept the floors and did the washing on a wash board.
Single men worked [on the ranch] for $35.00 dollars and board [per month].
He furnished his own bed. Married men with families for $50.00. They ate two
meals at home. A garden spot and fruit, two or more milk cows were furnished.
Fresh meat most of the time. Some of the married men were with the Baker's
for 10 years afterwards became renters.
Some of the single men or men who had families in Utah would go home as
soon as the fall work was finished. One or two single men were on pay the
year round.
Cattle raising was a major component of the Baker Ranch operation. According to the
aforementioned reminiscences, the work of Baker's continued to "grow in land holdings
and value." There were "about 600 cattle & 100 horses with range and feed for all." The
cattle
were ranged in the mountains West of Baker from April 1 - to Sept. 30th. At
this time they were gathered. The calves weaned were taken from their
mothers. After 3 or 4 days the cows were driven North and East to the winter
range, a distance of 35 miles to what was known as Skunk Springs, Utah,
where water had been developed from springs which run through pipes to
wooden troughs for the cattle. After the snow came these cattle lived on snow
187
for water with grass in the canyons. There they ranged until it was springtime
in the spring, usually about March 15 to 30th. Most of the calves were born
on the winter range.
They were harder to move in the spring, as most of the cows had calves. . .
In fact some of the calves were born on the trail. A great many of the young
calves were hauled in the extra wagon taken for this surplus. The calves were
tied with rope. All four legs [were tied] and placed in the wagon which had
loose hay on the floor of the wagon bed.
When the noon as well as the night stops were made the calves were taken
from the wagon, and care was taken to see each calf found the right mother.
The trail from the winter range took about five or six days, where in the fall the
dry stock would make the trip in two days with only two riders. In the spring
there were usually five riders besides the cook or wagon tender.
The calves had to be branded.
Each calf had to be roped from a horse and dragged to the fire, where a
second rope was put on either its head or feet before branding and marking.
There were usually four ropers in the corral at a time and three men at the fire.
The winter quarters consisted of a one room cabin, a bed, stove, and cooking
utensils, a horse barn for four horses, corral and hay and grain. There was
one man with the stock the year round, and part time two men.
These men were usually equipped with two pack horses besides their riding
horses. The beds which were carried was covered with heavy canvass known
as a tarpaulin which had snaps and rings. When this canvass was properly
around the bed it was almost water and wind proof. It was very seldom a tent
was carried.
Baker went on to reminisce about a cattle drive conducted in 1897. He observed:
During the drouth of 1896-97 there were many of the breeding cows, were in
such poor flesh they didn't raise calves in 1897. Hay being scarce. No grass
on the range. The stockmen sold a great many dry cows and all the steers.
Good dry cows sold for $20.00 per head, yearling steers for $12.00 to $13.00
and others in line with these prices.
There were two buyers came in from Salt Lake by the name of Eager &
Parsons. They traveled in a two wheel cart, two horses. With a built in frame
on the back, where their bed roll and grain could be carried.
These buyers contracted cattle from most every farmer or stockman in Snake
Valley and Spring Valley for fall delivery. These cattle had to be up to certain
grade, no cripples or sick ones. An advance payment was made on the cattle,
the balance to be made upon delivery at a certain place in Snake Valley known
as the Conger Ranch. Each stockman gathered his cattle then separated what
were to be sold.
After the inspection these were delivered to where the main herd was made up
for the trail to Oasis, Utah, a distance of about 120 miles as the trail went.
188
These cattle had to be branded or dobbed with paint so they could be
distinguished from the other range cattle.
Each stockman furnished one or two cowboys and horses, according to the
number sold. They had one chuck wagon, one cook, sometimes a flunkey
who did whatever chores there were. While in camp the coffee pot was always
on the fire, and things were kept for hurried meal.
A foreman was chosen who had full charge of the drive. It happened Philip M.
Doc was chosen. Several of the cattle hands were Indians who were very
reliable for night herding, as well as day trailing. A night herder was not
allowed to smoke or even light a match. The number of night herders
depended on the weather and several other things, such as water conditions,
feed and the moon light. Cattle often wanted to feed if the moon was bright.
Some times the night herders could go far enough away from the herd to enjoy
a smoke. Other times when the cattle were restless caused from lack of water
or feed, the riders either rode on a trot or lope around the herd pushing back
what was on the move.
Some of the cowboys would sing or whistle most of the time on shifts.
The night men were changed at midnight. Usually the herd was on the move
at daybreak which was about 4 o'clock. Enough riders came on shift after
having a cup of coffee and a beef steak to trail the cattle until the other riders
could get breakfast and catch up to the herd.
The foreman was always with the cattle when it started moving and usually
stayed until the other men overtook the herd.
The foreman usually changed horses often and had the cream, as he did most
of the outside riding such as looking ahead for feed and water. The herd would
usually travel farther from 4 in the morning until 1 1 , than all the balance of the
day from this time until mid-afternoon they would feed and rest.
Water was quite a problem on the drive. The springs were from 12 to 18 miles
apart. Some of these watering places were very soft and dangerous. The herd
would have to be held and small bunches of a 100 or so were let go in to
avoid tramping them in the mud. When these were watered they were moved
on so others could come in. Where water and feed was plentiful they would
rest the herd, men and horses.
There were two horse wranglers one for night and one for day. Usually the
changes were made morning, noon, and night. The night horses were saddled
and tied so they would be handy in case of a storm or stampede.
The night horses were usually rode until noon if not used at night.
One thing that stands out as it was told to me on this drive. What is still
known as rattle snake knoll. The herd had to pass to the sides of this knoll
which is possibly two miles around. At the time of the drive there were better
than 100 rattle snakes killed. This knoll is located about 7 miles east of Knoll
Springs on the Old Oasis freight road.
189
What is known as Cowboy pass on this road is a landmark. Here is where the
cowboys met the sheep men when they were moving into Snake Valley from
Tooly Valley. No lives were lost but the sheep were turned back. This pass
was known as the dividing line between sheep and cattle for many years.
In his reminiscences Baker elaborated on the planting and harvesting of alfalfa on the
ranch. He noted:
This was a crop that had to be watched from many angles. First the proper
time to irrigate. Some of the alfalfa ground was pastured with horses until early
June. After the stock were removed it was irrigated and nothing more was
done until it was determined as to the seed quality and quantity. Other tracts
of land was watered and clipped with the mowing machine. Other tracts had
never been watered for 10 years and never missed a crop of seed.
After the irrigating it was some time before the decision was made by Philip M.
Doc. If hay it was cut and stacked for winter feeding.
Seed cutting usually started in August and continued until early Sept. 10 to 15
when the first frost was expected. A frost was very detrimental to the seed,
causing it to turn black and was not considered first class. Of course a lower
price was realized.
The dark seed will grow, but was not used to any extent. When the seed was
cleaned at the seed mill the dark and light-weight seed went in with wild seed
and chaff. This was used to feed sheep and other livestock.
The seed harvesting was very slow in those days. They would bolt a half
cowhide to the sickle bar so the alfalfa would be carried until the pile was large
enough to rake off by hand. One man followed with a wood tooth rake and
raked it off in a pile. Then two men on opposite corners of the land to be cut
would set back pile to the left so the team and machine would not crush the
seed from the burrs. This was dried some ten days. Then came the hauling
and stacking.
The hay racks were built with matched flooring 8x16 feet. A canvas was used
two feet wider and longer than the rack. This canvass was emptied on the
stack at noon and night.
The place for stacking was selected where there were no rocks to get into the
thresher cylinder at clean up time.
The first side rake was built on a half circle platform made of matched flooring
with tin on the outside and close around the machine gears. The platform was
carried by a wheel on the far side which could be raised or lowered according
to the height of your hay or grain to be cut. The platform was lofted to the
sickle bar. There were four wooden arms which revolved around the head of
the machine, driven by the gear head. Each one of these arms had a wooden
toothed rake which pushed the hay back on the platform. Every fourth or fifth
rake as the machine was set pushed the hay or seed around the half circle
behind the machine. In this way it didn't have to be moved with the forks.
One man and team would cut as much as four men, where they used the
cowhide system.
190
The threshing of this seed was a long and tiresome work. It was all handled
by fork and hand fed into the threshing machine.
Twelve horses were used on the circular machine called a horse power, which
gave the thresher power to do the work.
In all it took about 12 to 14 men to operate the threshing. This work took from
three weeks to a month depending on weather conditions.70
After the death of George W. Baker in 1904, his son P.M. "Doc" Baker took over the Baker
Ranch and commenced a series of property transactions that would result in making the
ranch the largest in Snake Valley. When the Nevada Amalgamated Mines and Power
Company was formed in 1906 to renew and reestablish placer mining operations at
Osceola, Baker sold his holdings and water rights to the firm. On January 5, 1907, the
Ely Mining Expositor quoted the company:
The water rights to the Baker ranches which we bought a month ago will be put
to good advantage. Part of the water will be used in working the thousand
acres of placer ground now under our control, and the remainder will be used
in generating power. We expect to have enough power next Summer to supply
the town of Ely.71
Within months the Nevada Amalgamated Mines and Power Company became
overextended, and P.M. "Doc" Baker regained possession of his ranch. At the same time,
he began acquiring other Snake Valley ranches, thus making him the largest landowner
in Snake Valley. On November 14, 1907, the Ely Weekly Mining Expositor reported on
these transactions:
Through an agreement with the Amalgamated Nevada Mines and Power
company, of Blackhorse and Osceola, P.M. Baker, who sold his ranch in Snake
valley to that concern, has regained possession of that property.
H.S. Woolley, the former president of the Amalgamated, who acquired options
on the Snake valley ranches and the Snyders, have paid Baker in the
neighborhood of $30,000 for his water rights. Not desiring to turn over any
more money for that purpose, they entered into an agreement with Baker, by
which he takes back all his ranch property, and absolves the Amalgamated
company from any further obligation.
Under the provisions of the agreement, the Amalgamated people still have the
privilege of using the water for power purposes, but they must transmit a
sufficient amount of water from the site of the proposed power plant on Baker
Creek, to irrigate all the ranches controlled by P.M. Baker.
Mr. Baker has closed a number of deals recently by which he becomes the
possessor of thousands of acres of the best agricultural land in Snake valley,
including five of the most valuable ranches in that vicinity.
70. "Care of Friends and Strangers at the Baker Home," "Handling of Cattle by the Bakers," "Cattle Drive
1897," and "Growing and Harvesting Alfalfa," George W. Baker Reminiscences (Unpublished Ms., ca. 1904).
Copies of the quoted excerpts from the Baker reminiscences were provided to the author by Denys M. Baker of
Baker, Nevada, during a personal interview on September 15, 1988.
71. Ely Mining Expositor, January 5, 1907.
191
For a consideration of $12,000 he has purchased the ranch of his brother, Harry
Baker, which adjoins the old Baker estate, and Harry Baker and wife left a few
days ago for Missouri, where they intend to purchase a farm a few miles from
Kansas City. The ranch of the late Howard Baker, who killed himself over a
year ago, after he had attempted to kill his wife, will fall into the hands of P.M.
Baker as soon as the estate has been settled in the courts.
E.W. Clay and L. Burbank, who sold their water rights to the Amalgamated
company less than a year ago, have also transferred their land to P.M. Baker.72
As a result of these property acquisitions P.M. "Doc" Baker had property holdings totaling
nearly 1,200 acres by 1909. The county assessment roll for 1909 listed the following
properties as belonging to Baker:
Home Ranch on Baker Creek - $500
Dolly Baker Land with house and improvements - 13 acres
Clay Baker Land and improvements - 320 acres
Harry Baker Land and improvements - 80 acres
Howard Baker Land and improvements - 80 acres
Three lots in Black Horse
Young Canyon House and improvements
Baker also possessed numerous livestock, farm implements, wagons, and carriages:
12 work horses
6 saddle horses
30 stock horses
1 stallion
1/2 interest in one stallion
mules
harness
15 cows
500 stock cattle
12 hogs
wagons, carriages, and machinery73
"Doc" Baker continued to acquire property and consolidate his holdings in Snake Valley.
In 1911, for instance, he purchased the 600- and 7-acre Rowland ranches, both formerly
belonging to Absalom Lehman. With these acquisitions Baker's property holdings in the
valley amounted to 2.920.74
During the 1910s and 1920s the old Baker Ranch went through several transitions. In
1914 Baker sold his extensive holdings to Guy Saval, a wealthy Basque sheep rancher
from Elko, for $100,000. News of this transaction was reported in the Humboldt Star on
September 7, 1914:
Guy Saval of Elko is here [Ely] for the purpose of purchasing the Baker ranch
in Snake valley. The Baker ranch, situated east of Jeff Davis peak in the
72. Ely Weekly Mining Expositor, November 14, 1907.
73. Assessment Book, 1909, White Pine County, White Pine County Courthouse, Ely.
74. Assessment Book, 1911, White Pine County, White Pine County Courthouse, Ely.
192
richest portion of Snake valley, is undoubtedly one of the finest ranches in
White Pine county.
Mr. Saval is one of the largest cattle and sheep owners in Elko county and it
is understood that he will go into the stock raising business in White Pine
county on an extensive scale.
Mr. Saval made an initial payment of $50,000.75
Saval formed the Baker Livestock Company and immediately began converting the former
Baker cattle operation to a sheep raising concern. During the next several years a number
of Basques invested money in the Saval company and moved to the town of Baker, which
soon became derisively referred to as "Basque Town." Saval continued sheep operations
until he sold the ranch to the Utah-Nevada Land and Livestock Company in 1921.76
The president of the aforementioned company was Otto Meek, a long-time western
cattleman and stockraiser, who had furnished more than 275,000 head of horses and
mules to the Allied Powers during World War I. With financing provided by the Mammoth
Land and Power Company, Meek established the Meek Brothers Ranch and converted its
operation from raising sheep to cattle, horses, hogs, poultry, and row crops. In 1923 the
White Pine County assessment roll listed the assets of the ranch under the following
classifications:
Cultivation
1,017 acres
Meadow
190 acres
Pasture
400 acres
Arable
60 acres
Grazing
1,567 acres
Barren
1,076 acres
Work horses
30
Saddle horses
6
Stock horses
15
Mules
6
Stock cattle
60
Bulls
2
Milch cow
1
Hogs
60
Chickens
100
Turkeys
15 w
Otto Meek also began construction of a dude ranch on part of the property. Explaining the
rationale for the dude ranch, he noted:
It occurred to me, that by combining the resources of our immense Ranch, we
could give guests every variety of sport; the big outdoor life they are seeking,
75. Humboldt Star, September 7, 1914, quoted in William A. Douglass and Jon Bilbao, Amerikanuak: Basques
in the New World (Reno, University of Nevada Press, 1975), p. 264.
76. "History of the Nevada National Forest Written by George C. Larson in 1917," pp. 26-27, in Donnel J.
Ward, comp., "History of the Humboldt N.F.," [1960], Typescript, Historical Files, U.S. Forest Service, Humboldt
National Forest, Headquarters, Elko, Nevada.
77. Assessment Book, 1923, Vol. 2, White Pine County, White Pine County Courthouse, Ely.
193
including golf, polo, tennis, horseback riding, mountain climbing, hunting and
fishing; where a great diversity of wild game and fish could be found without
sacrificing one iota the comforts to which the guest is accustomed.
We have the setting, organization, equipment and adequate resources back of
us that will enable us to give our guests a variety and quality of service and
entertainment unequalled anywhere.
The Meek brothers published a brochure advertising the unique qualities of their new dude
ranch in grandiloquent terms:
For magnificence and magnitude Meek's Ranch is without rival in America. It
has become the gathering place of sportsmen, statesmen, writers, painters,
celebrities of the screen and stage, and business men who have found from
Roosevelt's experience that the West has much to give.
Icy streams, filled with angry trout, tumbling from the mountains, are fed from
placid lakes above. Wild duck and game fish abound. The early morning
fisherman may startle deer from the thickets beside the streams. They will
probably scamper up the canyons where there are, besides deer, coyotes,
mountain lions, wild cats and wolves. Antelope still inhabit the lower lands.
Here the bracing mountain air makes exercise a joy, and whether one chooses
to scale the mountains, visit the great glacier in the northern side of Mount
Wheeler, explore uncharted country, ride to cow camps, break wild horses, live
with cowboys as a cowboy, hunt wild game or fish for trout in the cold, swift
mountain streams, play polo, race, golf, tennis, swim or lounge about the
luxurious clubhouse, all these opportunities will be found at Meek's.
Within half a mile of the Ranch Clubhouse are the now famous Lehman Caves,
as yet but partially explored.
As was the case with many other development ventures during the 1920s, the dude ranch
operation was curtailed by the onset of the Great Depression in 1929.
While the Meek brothers were commencing operations on their ranch, James Cruze,
director of the Paramount motion picture production, "The Covered Wagon," selected the
ranch as background for filming in 1922. During the filming of the movie, which featured
Warren Kerrigan and Lois Miller in leading roles, the company encamped on the western
shore of Pruess Lake, several miles south of Garrison, where a small tent city was
established and hundreds of performers were housed. Among these were 400 Indians who
were brought to the area from various parts of the West. Several hundred oxen were
transported to the site, as were a herd of buffalo from Antelope Island in the Great Salt
Lake. During the filming many local townspeople and ranchers were hired as extras to
appear in the picture. The famous scene of the crossing of the Platte River was taken on
the north end of Pruess Lake. The film cost some $1 ,000,000 to produce and was one of
the early extravaganzas of the motion picture industry.78
78. "Meek's Dude Ranch," ca. 1923, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park; Waite, "Proposed Great Basin
National Park," Part II, p. 479; and Read, White Pine Lang Syne, p. 142.
194
Elwin W. Clay
Elwin W. Clay, who would later gain local prominence as a local blacksmith and an early
Utah territorial judge, began working on the Willard Burbank Ranch near Pruess Lake in
1876. As a young man he had been employed as a cowboy in California and Nevada
and had sold horses in Snake Valley in 1873 while on a circuit through eastern Nevada.
In later years he reminisced about that horse-selling endeavor:
I went through Snake Valley in August, 1873. My step-father and I had been
to California where we bought horses, paying from $2.50 to $7.00 per head.
We first went to Monroe, Sevier County, for there was no money those days,
just trade. We had four hundred forty-four horses, and traded them all but
seventy-four head, between Monroe and Ephraim. We never took a note or
anything to show for our transaction. The men wanting the horses would come
in a band, pick their horses and lead them home, and we would select our
grain, wheat or what ever we were trading for; sometimes it was stock. Grain
was then six or seven cents a pound, and we got from $100.00 to $125.00 a
head. Every man paid but one - we lost one account. We took some cattle
for horses, as cattle at that time were used for working. Some of the men
would turn whole fields of grain over to us.
We took our seventy-four head of horses over to Snake Valley in 1873, and
there we found Sam Hockman to whom we traded our seventy-four horses,
and he had two children living with his wife, a boy and a girl.79
After working on the Burbank ranch for some years, Clay married Margie Burbank in 1884
and the couple moved into a log dwelling he had constructed near Clay Spring on the
ranch. The home was known as the "House by the Side of the Road" as it was a favorite
stopping place for friends and travelers along the pioneer road that eventually became the
present-day route of Utah State Highway 21. fl0
Jonas Woodward
One of the families that attempted to settle in Snake Valley during the late nineteenth
century was that of Jonas and Lizzie Woodward who left Salt Lake City in November 1 894
to get a fresh start on life. Neal, one of the Woodward sons, kept a journal of the family's
six-year stay in the valley. The journal describes the conditions encountered by the family
when it entered the valley:
We traveled some 14 miles today, made a dry camp between Tule Valley and
Snake Valley. Tomorrow we expected to see the land which was to be our
home. . . . This morning we started on west soon crossing the summit and
started on the down grade into the valley. It was desert just like all the rest of
the country we had passed thru but on the west side of this valley was a high
range of snow capped mountains, the Snake Range.
Mt. Moriah was on the north of this range and Jeff Davis was the main peak
of the range. These mountains were some 13,000 ft. high! It was now the
middle of November but there was some of last years snow on the north side
79. Quoted in Day and Ekins, comps., Milestones of Millard, p. 181.
80. E.W. Clay, "Shades of the Past," n.d., and Clyde Heath, "E.W. Clay: The Sawtooth Judge," 1968, Vertical
Files, Great Basin National Park.
195
of some of these peaks. On the north of the Jeff Davis Peak were the placer
mines of Osceola and also rich quartz mines, but was quiet now the camp had
been on the decline for some time.
We reached Knoll Spring for noon and took plenty of time to rest and as the
day was warm and we were back to where water was plentiful, we took time
to wash off most of the desert dirt. Left the Springs in the afternoon to go on
to the Conger ranch some 10 miles to the south. This was the first ranch we
had seen since leaving Rush Valley some two weeks ago. We got to our camp
about sundown, found a man and his family here, also two hired men. They
were all working for a Mr. Gouder, one of the big cattle men of this valley.
Here Clarence & Uncle Rob went to the bunkhouse to sleep but we slept in the
wagons. Was cold but pleasant. The water was frozen so hard we had to take
a club to break the ice so the horses could drink. This morning we left for
Snake Creek, our destination. That was some 13 miles to the south. There
was a small settlement here now of some 6 or 7 small farms and this was to
be the seat of operations for the new irrigation company. At noon we came in
sight of the farms and trees the first we had seen since leaving Camp Floyd,
except for cedar and juniper which grew wild in the hills.
The fields and hay stacks were a sight which we could enjoy. We reached
the Rowland ranch to stop for dinner and afterward Clarence rode his saddle
pony up to the Burbank Post Office to get our mail, some 4-1/2 miles. He
found the building, a log building some 1/2 mile from the nearest ranch. Just
a place to receive and distribute mail which the stage brought from the rail at
Frisco. This was one of the offices on the stage line from Frisco to Ely,
Nevada.
In the afternoon we drove on thru the settlement. We stopped at a farm
Mr. Imes had rented and bought 2 sacks of grain. This farm belonged to a
Mr. Robison but he was away so we did not see him. We pulled on up to the
creek above the settlement and camped to stay here till we could find
something to do or go on the land we intended to locate.
We found most of the people here very friendly though people of very moderate
means. Their houses were all built of logs and roofs were made of poles
covered with straw and clay. The clay shed water when it did not rain too hard.
Most of them were ceiled with white cloth. They were warm, comfortable
houses but not very fancy inside or out. Most of them had a big fireplace.
They were a long ways from the railroad here, 60 to 80 miles, and building
material was high and this kind of a house did not require much which they had
to buy except lumber for the floors and doors and they could trade for that at
a local sawmill. Their nails they bought from the local store but they had to
"send away" for windows.
Most of the people had small farms and did all their own work and raised hay,
grain and gardens for their own use. They fed their hay to their work stock and
cattle and sold their grain to the travel or took it to the store to trade for store
pay.8'
81. "Woodward Family," Journal of Neal D. Woodward, pp. 4-6, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park.
196
The Woodwards first settled along Snake Creek, but soon decided to relocate in Lexington
Canyon. The Woodward boys took work wherever they could, herding sheep, milking cows,
helping with harvests, and laboring at sawmills and on mining claims. As their farm began
producing crops, they took its produce to Ely, Ward, and Cherry Creek to peddle in the
mining camps. The Woodwards, however, never could succeed in Snake Valley and
ultimately left for Oregon in 1900. As the Woodwards left Snake Valley Neal wrote:
We had been in this land of promise - mostly promise - results were few, now
for about 6 years and had gathered some stock around us but had not found
the farm we were looking for and had not seen any within our reach. We had
21 head of cattle and some 30 or 35 head of horses. But farm land was
scarce and water was scarcer and uncertain and though a rolling stone gathered
no moss we thought that a change of pasture might make fat calves so we
decided to look for greener fields. We wanted to go to Oregon as we thought
the rain would fall there and the grass would grow. We were getting tired of
the desert.
We got up near the summit of the Snake Range and camped for dinner. We
could see back over the valley that had been our home for the past 6 years.
Many of our plans had fallen flat. ... We came here to get a farm but there
was such a small area of cultivated land and this was held so high that it cost
as much to buy a farm here as anywhere. There was thousands of acres of
good level land in this valley but it was worthless without water. Without water
it would not produce anything but lizards, horned toads and disappointment.82
Other Early Snake Valley Settlers
There were other early settlers in Snake Valley beside the Hockmans, Lehmans, Burbanks,
Bakers, Clays, and Woodwards. During the 1870s Horace Conger, a well-to-do miner from
Virginia City, established a ranch four miles east of the Nevada-Utah border on the east
side of northern Snake Valley. Samuel Foreman and Francis Freeman settled along Lake
Creek about 1870 and later purchased a farm near Garrison where they raised barley and
other grain crops. In 1871 William Cobb and his wife settled a farm at Big Spring. Robert
and Nick Dowling began farming along Snake Creek near present-day Garrison in the early
1870s, and in 1873 sold their land to D.A. Gonder and William Gregory, two cattlemen who
had crossed the plains from Newark, Ohio, with ox-team wagons loaded with dynamite for
Fort Douglas, Utah, five years before. During the early 1870s the George Robison family
and two Pioche mine owners, Smith and Curtis, commenced farming operations near
present-day Baker, raising hay, grain, and vegetables for area mining camps. About 1878,
William Atchinson homesteaded land near the south end of Pruess Lake. In 1886 the
David Eldridge family established a ranch in the canyon west of Silver Creek. During the
1880s the Wilber Fowler family settled in Big Wash, and in 1889 Elias M. Smith established
a ranch nearby and soon gained local notoriety as the Snake Valley casket maker. About
the same time Peter Robison settled in what became known as Shingle Creek Canyon.
In 1899 Thomas Deardon, a native of Great Britain who had established a mercantile and
freighting business in Baker in the mid-1 880s, acquired a livestock ranch near Garrison.83
82. Ibid, pp. 16-17.
83. Baker, "Early History of Snake Valley," n.p.; Read, White Pine Lang Syne, pp. 133-49; Milford News,
August 11, 1949; Ely Daily Times, October 11, 1961; and Boyes to Phipps, July 22, 1979, Vertical Files, Great
Basin National park.
197
EARLY SETTLERS AND RANCHING OPERATIONS IN SPRING VALLEY
Settlers began establishing farms and ranches in Spring Valley during the late 1860s and
early 1870s. The valley, which the Indians had once called the "Valley of One Thousand
Springs," was considered by many to have the best watered grazing land in the state. The
first settler in the valley was reported to be Benjamin Kimball who established a cattle
ranch near the present-day Swallow Ranch in 1869. Among the early settlers in the
northern part of the valley were Thomas and Charles Odgers, Manton Bassett, R.C. O'Neill,
Jacob Cameron, James McCurdy, Patrick Flanagan, and Michael Keelan, while those in the
southern part were Abner C. Cleveland, Louis Olmstead, Daniel Rutherford, and George
Swallow. These settlers engaged in raising horses and cattle, cutting sufficient hay in the
summer for winter feeding, and raising vegetables and fruit to supply nearby mining camps.
The continuing increase in stock, coupled with several consecutive dry seasons, reduced
the valley "to a state bordering on barrenness," by the late 1870s and early 1880s, and
only those cattlemen who could afford to fence in their ranges were able to survive, finally
only Cleveland, Olmstead, and Swallow remaining.
While the valley afforded increasingly poor grazing for cattle, the range proved sufficient for
sheep and by the mid-1 880s the valley became widely-known as a center for sheep raising.
Among the earliest sheep raisers in the valley was James Sampson, a miner from Hamilton
who brought 50 head of sheep about 1876. Within a decade he possessed a large ranch
several miles south of Muncy Creek, was assessed for some 8,000 sheep, and shipped
some 200,000 pounds of wool to the Boston markets in one year. Other early prominent
sheepmen in the valley were John and Joshua Yelland, Patrick Keegan, John Tippet,
James, Thomas, and Harry Bews, Alfred Doutre, Daniel Murphy, William McCurdy, Ralph
and Manton Basset, Pierce and Quick, and the Bounty brothers.84
One of the largest and most prominent ranches in Spring Valley was that established by
Abner C. Cleveland, a cousin of President Grover Cleveland. Born in Maine in 1838
Cleveland sailed around the Horn to California in 1858 and spent the next ten years in
various mining and lumbering ventures in California and the Comstock in Nevada. For a
period he represented Nevada County in the California state legislature. After losing money
in a Virginia City mining venture in 1868, he joined the White Pine mining rush. After
losing more money in a toll road venture between Hamilton and Eureka, he entered the
cattle ranching business in Spring Valley in the early 1870s. For the next decade he and
his partner, Daniel Murphy of Elko County, imported Mexican cattle to run the range, but
several severe winters killed much livestock and the men suffered economic loss. In 1881
Cleveland imported the first Hereford bulls into White Pine County, and in 1884 he
purchased additional Hereford, Shorthorn, and Holstein sires from James Funkhouser, the
noted Missouri breeder. By the late 1880s the Cleveland Ranch encompassed some 4,000
acres, and Cleveland's cattle ranged over a 15,000 spread in the valley.85
Perhaps, the best contemporary description of the Cleveland Ranch is found in materials
gathered by Hubert H. Bancroft about 1888. He noted:
84. B.F. Miller, "Nevada In the Making," Nevada State Historical Society Papers, 1923-1924, pp. 306-121;
Read, White Pine Lang Syne, pp. 173-74, 182-83; Interview of George Swallow by James Jacobs, April 8, 1968,
Transcription, 1980, Historical Files, USFS, Elko; Sawyer, Nevada Nomads, pp. 18-22; Wentworth, America's Sheep
Trails, pp. 218-22; and Georgetta, Golden Fleece in Nevada, pp. 304-07.
85. Read, White Pine Lang Syne, pp. 180-81; Davis, History of Nevada, I, 443-44; Shelton Hardaway Short,
"A History of the Nevada Livestock Industry Prior to 1900" (Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Nevada, Reno,
1965), pp. 32, 71; and U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Cultural Resource Record of
the Moriah Planning Area, Ely District BLM, by Peggy Gaudy, May 1979, p. 86.
198
Mr. Cleveland's place is almost due south from Toana, on the C.P.R.R. His
interests are in the firm of Cleveland & Hill, who have about 15,000 acres of
land, upon which their cattle range, the range extending, however, over an area
of 100 miles. The firm own a herd - each of thoroughbred Herefords,
Shorthorns and Holsteins; their range cattle number between 5,000 and 7,000
head. They also raise some fine blooded horses, and have considerable capital
employed in their industry. The home ranch, which is nearly in the centre of
the valley, lengthways, contains slightly over 4,000 acres, which is highly
improved, and planted partly in trees, making a very beautiful place. Here is
kept the blooded stock, the land being sown almost entirely in tame hays. Mr.
Cleveland resides on the ranch with his wife. The climate of the Valley is
delightful, and Mr. Cleveland has never seen snow enough there for sleighing.
Hay is raised on Messrs. Cleveland & Hill's ranch for $3 per ton, and is quite
abundant. They do not feed the range cattle; last winter (1887-'88) 1,000 head
were fed. All business is done with Salt Lake City, freight being shipped down
the Utah Central Railroad, and thence 120 miles by team.86
Cleveland continued to acquire land and add to his purebred herds until the early 1900s.
By 1891 he owned more than 7,000 acres of land in Spring Valley.87 Later in 1898 he
attended the Chicago Livestock Show where he purchased cows, heifers, and bulls to
enlarge his purebred herds.
A second ranching operation worthy of mention in Spring Valley was that begun by Jewett
W. Adams. In 1882 he drove 5,000 head of cattle from Nye County to Spring Valley where
he had purchased several ranches and obtained several others as a result of land
forfeitures. Two years later he bought an additional 1,700 acres from Cleveland, thus
making Jewett one of the largest landholders in White Pine County. Meanwhile, William
N. McGill and W.G. Lyons began cattle ranching in Steptoe Valley in 1886. McGill soon
bought out Lyons and continued to expand his holdings until merging with Adams in 1898
to form the Adams-McGill ranching empire that included vast herds of cattle as well as
sheep. Later in 1909 Adams and McGill purchased the Cleveland Ranch in Spring Valley,
thus giving them title to more than 98,000 acres on which they raised some 12,000 cattle,
1 ,000 horses, and 40,000 sheep.88
86. "Abner Coburn Cleveland: Data Regarding Progress and Growth of Nevada," pp. 3-5, in "Data Regarding
Progress and Growth of Nevada," ca. 1888, Manuscripts Division, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
87. Assessment Book, White Pine County, 1891, Nevada State Archives, Carson City.
88. Short, "History of Nevada Livestock Industry Prior to 1900," pp. 32, 71, and Cultural Resource Record of
the Moriah Planning Area, pp. 86-88.
199
CHAPTER EIGHT
POLITICAL, SOCIOECONOMIC, TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS,
AND LUMBER INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT IN SNAKE AND SPRING VALLEYS
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to present a historical overview of political, socioeconomic,
transportation, and communications development in White Pine County with particular
attention to Snake and Spring valleys. The chapter will focus on the establishment and
development of White Pine County, population and economic trends and characteristics of
the county, settlement of communities in Snake Valley, and transportation, communications,
and early industrial development in Snake and Spring valleys and the Snake Range.
ESTABLISHMENT OF WHITE PINE COUNTY
White Pine County is in the central eastern part of the state of Nevada, being bounded on
the north by Elko County, the south by Lincoln, the southwest by Nye, the west by Eureka,
and the east by the state of Utah. By the Compromise Act of September 9, 1850,
Congress established Utah Territory, and the area of present-day Nevada fell under its
jurisdiction. From that date until the state of Nevada was established in 1864 the area of
present-day Nevada was treated as a backwater by Utah territorial officials in Salt Lake
City. Because of the distance from the Utah territorial seat and because officials
demonstrated little concern for the western Great Basin, there were repeated attempts in
the area of present-day Nevada to form squatter governments or to annex the region to
California. The hostility of some settlers toward their Mormon counterparts encouraged
these efforts.
Initially, the Utah territorial government allocated the western portion of the Great Basin or
the approximate area of present-day Nevada to existing Utah counties. The counties were
extended into long east-west strips which did not reflect local geography and were not
designed for practical administration. The region in which present-day Great Basin National
Park is located became part of Millard County in 1851, the county stretching virtually to the
California border.1
Gold and silver strikes in the Comstock region of present-day western Nevada led to a
dramatic increase in the area's population beginning in 1859. The non-Mormon
prospectors, miners, and opportunists became convinced that the only satisfactory
government would be one organized by locals. At the same time, some federal officials
realized that federal control was needed in the rough frontier communities where justice and
ownership rights were either poor or lacking. Although the Utah territorial government
stepped up its efforts to satisfy western regional concerns, various conventions in the
western Great Basin began to call for the creation of a new territory. This call was finally
answered on March 2, 1861, when President James Buchanan signed legislation creating
the Territory of Nevada out of lands formerly belonging to Utah. After his inauguration,
President Abraham Lincoln appointed James W. Nye of New York as governor of the
territory on March 22, 1861, and directed him to proceed to Nevada to organize a
government. The first legislature convened in the new capital of Carson City in November.
1. Documentation concerning Utah territorial government during the 1850s and early 1860s may be found
in Secretary of Utah Territory, Territorial Executive Papers, Series 241, Reel 1, 1849-1857, Reel 2, 1857-1864,
and Reel 3, 1864-1869, and Executive Record Books, Series 242, Reel 1, 1850-1863, and Reel 2, 1852-1871,
State of Utah, Department of Administrative Services, Division of Archives and Records Service, Salt Lake City.
201
When Nevada was established as a territory in 1861 its boundaries as set down by
Congress excluded present-day White Pine County, the eastern boundary of the new
territory being located on the 39th meridian west from Washington. Two boundary additions
were made to Nevada in 1862 and 1866 to round out its present-day geographical
configuration. On July 14, 1862, Congress granted a request from Governor Nye and the
territorial legislature, asking for one additional degree of territory to the east. Thus, when
admitted as the 36th state to the union on October 31, 1864, Nevada had as its eastern
boundary the 38th meridian west from Washington and thereby included only the western
half of present-day White Pine County.2 In 1866 U.S. Senators Nye and William M. Stewart
of Nevada introduced a bill to amend the Nevada Enabling Act to include one additional
degree of longitude on the east. The bill was passed by Congress on May 5, 1866,
extending the boundary of Nevada eastward to the 37th meridian west from Washington
and southward to the Colorado River. This extension included the eastern portion of
present-day White Pine County and the area in which present-day Great Basin National
Park is located. The addition of these two degrees of territory was justified by Congress
on the grounds that they were mining areas and Nevada was a mining state, and thus the
interests of the state and the new territories were identical. For its part, Utah objected little
to the loss of its territory as its leaders viewed the mining region as being inimical to the
interests of the Mormon settlements.3
The western half of present-day White Pine County was made a part of Churchill County
in 1862. Before Churchill was fully organized, however, a large portion of it, including the
present-day White Pine County area, was placed under the jurisdiction of Lander County
on December 19, 1862.4 After the eastward extension of Nevada in 1866, much of the
area acquired in the central eastern part of the state, including the area in which present-
day Great Basin National Park is located, was incorporated into Lander County. On April
1, 1869, with the rapid expansion of population resulting from the White Pine mining rush,
White Pine County was established, the county seat being designated as Hamilton. The
boundaries of the new county were fixed indefinitely as follows:
All that portion of the State of Nevada lying east of a line running due north and
south through the most westerly part of the house known as Shannon's Station,
on the westerly slope of Diamond Mountains, in Lander County, on the road
from Austin to Hamilton in said County and south of a line running due east and
west through the most northerly part of Camp Ruby, and north of the present
2. While the total population of Nevada was theoretically too small for statehood status, it was argued that
the addition of Nevada would help to strengthen the Union cause in the Civil War because of its extensive gold
and silver production and enhance the reelection prospects of President Abraham Lincoln in November.
3. Davis, History of Nevada, pp. 211-12; Mack, Nevada, pp. 406-408; Beulah Hershiser, "The Adjustment of
the Boundaries of Nevada" (Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Nevada, Reno, 1911); Political History of Nevada
(4th ed., Carson City, 1960), pp. 33-34; and Russell Richard Elliott, "The Early History of White Pine County,
Nevada: 1865-1887" (Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Washington, 1938), pp. 3-5.
4. Angel, History of Nevada, pp. 461-62.
202
line between the counties of Nye and Lander, as located by Thomas J. Reed,
County Surveyor of Lander County, made in 1868.5
POPULATION TRENDS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WHITE PINE COUNTY
The population of White Pine County declined markedly after the White Pine mining rush.
Newspapers estimated a total population in the White Pine district of some 40,000 persons
at the height of the rush in 1869-70. These figures were apparently exaggerated, because
the government census of 1870 showed a total of only 7,189 persons for the entire county.
It is true, however, that the frenzy of the rush had reached its peak by mid-1870, and
miners and prospectors quickly moved on to other areas.
Of the total population in 1870, 6,830 (95.0%) were whites, 67 (0.9%) were Blacks, and
292 (4.1%) were Chinese. The native-born total was 3,772 (52.5%), and the foreign-born
total was 3,417 (47.5%). Most of the native-born group came from eastern states such as
New York (701), Ohio (360), Pennsylvania (295), Illinois (158), and from California (364).
The largest number of foreign-born came from Ireland (971), England and Wales (572),
British America (454), Germany (445), and Scotland (119).6
The population of White Pine County declined markedly after 1870, a special state census
in 1875 showing only 2,557 county residents. The census figures showed that there were
1,858 white males, 528 white females, 70 black males, 21 black females, 60 Chinese
males, and 20 Chinese females. Males of foreign birth totaled 816, and females of foreign
birth,. 152. In addition, the census enumerated 1,525 Indians living in the county, but these
people were not officially classified as county residents.7
The population of White Pine County increased slightly to 2,682 in 1880. The largest
number of native-born residents came from Nevada, New York, and Utah. The largest
foreign-born element in the county was that of Italian extraction, followed in declining order
by those from England and Wales, Ireland, British America, China, Germany, and Norway
and Sweden. Four percent, or 107 residents, were Chinese.8
The population of White Pine County declined by more than 900 persons between 1880
and 1890 to 1,721 in the latter year. Of this total, 1,437 (83.5%) were white and 46 (2.7%)
5. State of Nevada, Revised Laws, 1912 (Carson City, 1912), pp. 423-30. These boundaries were later
changed by two acts of the Nevada state legislature. In 1875 a 30- by 90-mile strip on the southern and
southwestern border was detached from Nye County and added to White Pine County. Six years later a portion
of White Pine was granted to Eureka County, thus moving the upper half of the western boundary of White Pine
to the crest of the Diamond Mountains. Russell Richard Elliott, "The Early History of White Pine County, Nevada,
1865-1887," Pacific Northwest Quarterly, XXX (1939), 146-47. For further data on this subject see Elliott, History
of Nevada, pp. 49-122.
6. American Annual Cyclopedia and Register of Important Events of the Year 1871 (New York, 1872), XI,
542. Also see Scrugham, Nevada, III, 266-69.
7. Census of the Inhabitants of the State of Nevada, 1875, pp. 822-23, in Appendix to Journals of Senate
and Assembly, State of Nevada, 8th Session, Vol. 2.
8. U.S. Department of the Interior, Census Office, Statistics of the Population of the United States at the
Tenth Census (June 1, 1880) (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1883), I, 520, and Elliott, "Early History
of White Pine County," M.A. thesis, p. 53.
203
were Chinese. No blacks were enumerated that year, but 238 Indians were listed under
a separate category.9
Population statistics for White Pine County listed 1,961 residents in 1900 (1890-1900
increase - 13.9%) and 7,441 in 1910, the large increase (279.4%) between 1900 and
1910 being attributable largely to the development of the extensive copper mines at Ruth.
The number of whites in the county increased from 1,722 in 1900 to 7,246 in 1910, and
the number of blacks from 1 to 46. The number of Chinese declined from 31 to 25, but
some 45 Japanese were listed in 1910. Persons of "native white-native parentage"
increased from 736 (37.5%) to 3,068 (41.2%) and those of "native white-foreign or mixed
parentage" increased from 580 (29.6%) to 1 ,820 (24.5%). Foreign-born whites increased
from 406 (20.7%) to 2,238 (30.1%). The foreign-born whites in 1910 came principally from
Greece (702), Austria (259), England (224), and Italy (203). The 1900 and 1910 censuses
showed that the number of people living in the Osceola Precinct was 176 for both years,
while the number residing in the Snake Valley Precinct declined from 144 to 137.10
The population of White Pine County increased by 20.1 percent between 1910 and 1920
to 8,935 in the latter year. Of this total, the Snake Valley and Spring Valley precincts had
281 and 143 residents, respectively.11
Since 1920 the population of White Pine County has continued to fluctuate with the periodic
growth and decline of mining operations. The population statistics for the years 1930-80
were:
1930- 11,771
1940 - 12,377
1950 - 9,424
1960 - 9,808
1970 - 10,150
1980 - 8,167
In 1970 the population of White Pine County accounted for about 2 percent of the state's
total. The county was sparsely populated with an average density of 1.1 persons per
square mile compared to a total of 4.4 for the state.12
ECONOMIC TRENDS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WHITE PINE COUNTY
Real estate and personal property valuation in White Pine County also fluctuated with the
prosperity of the mines. In 1870 real estate valuation of the county was $961,685, while
9. U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States
Taken In the Year 1910, Statistics for Nevada (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1913), p. 485.
10. Ibid, pp. 574, 580, 584-85.
11. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920.
. . . Population: Nevada (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1921), pp. 5-6.
12. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Nevada's Economic Profile: State Economic
Structure .... Natural Resource Use (Reno, 1974), xii.
204
personal property valuation was $1,265,061.51. By 1874 these figures had fallen
dramatically to $171,795 and $564,756, respectively.13
The general downturn of the mining industry in White Pine County during the late
nineteenth century resulted in continuing decreases in real estate and personal property
valuation. In 1880, for instance, real estate was valued at $545,687 and personal property
at $41 7,1 64. M Ten years later county real estate was valued at $313,560 and personal
property at $346,680. 15 By 1900 the county valuation of real estate had declined to
$271,765 and of personal property to $266,085. 16 As a result of the development of the
Ruth copper mines in the early twentieth century, the assessed value of county real estate
skyrocketed to $4,990,239 in 1910 and $6,856,350 in 1914, while personal property
assessment rose to $1,735,516 in 1910 before declining to $1,335,431 in 1914.17
In 1970 total personal income for White Pine County was about $27,000,000 or 1.7 percent
of the state's total. Per capita personal income was $2,821 . The median family income
was $9,111, considerably lower than the state average of $10,692. Some 7.3 percent of
county families had incomes below the defined poverty level of $3,000 per year. The most
important sectors of the economy from the standpoint of personal income were
manufacturing, mining, and services, while the lowest contributors were finance, insurance
and real estate, agriculture, and construction.18
SETTLEMENT OF COMMUNITIES IN SNAKE VALLEY
While no settlement worthy of the designation developed in Spring Valley, several small
villages emerged in Snake Valley in the vicinity of present-day Great Basin National Park.
These communities include Burbank, Baker, Garrison, and Home Farm.
Burbank
It is generally accepted that the Samuel Hockman family was the first to settle in Snake
Valley in 1869. The Hockmans established a small ranch along lower Lake Creek south
of present-day Garrison. Soon other pioneers settled near the Hockmans, including Willard
Burbank, for whom the town of Burbank was named, Judge Elwin W. Clay who established
a ranch at Clay Spring, Thomas Dearden who commenced ranching south of Clay Spring,
13. Elliott, "Early History of White Pine County," M.A. thesis, p. 54, and Report of the Surveyor General and
State Land Register of the State of Nevada For the Years 1873 and 1874, p. 39, in Appendix to Journals of Senate
and Assembly, State of Nevada, 7th Session.
14. Report of the Surveyor General and State Land Register of the State of Nevada For the Years 1879 and
1880, p. 66, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 10th Session.
15. Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register of the State of Nevada For the Years 1889 and
1890, p. 192, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1891, 15th Session.
16. Biennial Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register, 1899-1900, p. 36, in Appendix to
Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1901, 20th Session.
17. Biennial Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register, 1909-1910, p. 71, in Appendix to
Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1911, 25th Session, Vol. I, and Biennial Report of the Surveyor-
General and State Land Register, 1913-1914, p. 46, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, 1915, 27th
Session, Vol. I.
18. Nevada's Economic Profile, xii.
205
and William Cobb who established a ranch at Big Spring at the source of Lake Creek.
As the Burbank community continued to grow the first school was opened in 1874 by
Mrs. Sam Ketchum, the town site was surveyed in 1878, and the first post office in Snake
Valley was established there in 1881 with Mrs. L.S. Schumacher as post mistress. By
1911 some 50 people were living in the Burbank community.
The early history of the settlement revolved mostly around Judge Elwin W. Clay and his
wife, Margie Burbank Clay. The Clays built a log ranch house in 1884 that came to be
known as "The House by the Side of the Road." The house was near the old pioneer
road that now serves as the route for Utah State Highway 21, and friends and travelers
were always welcome. Clay had a blacksmith shop where he shod horses, and repaired
machinery and farm implements.19
Baker
As pioneer families continued to enter the Snake Valley another small community formed
along lower Firbush (present-day Baker) Creek. About 1873 Ben Lehman, the brother of
Absalom Lehman, settled near the site of present-day Baker. Soon Smith and Curtis, two
mine owners from Pioche, commenced farming operations in the vicinity, raising grain, hay,
and vegetables for area mining camps. In 1876 George W. Baker, for whom the town,
creek, and nearby lake and caves would later be named, arrived and soon established one
of the finest cattle ranches in central eastern Nevada. About 1882 Thomas Dearden, a
native of England, established the first store in Snake Valley in the Baker community.
Known as the "Ranchers' Store," the business served as an all-purpose mercantile outlet
for Snake Valley residents. The Baker post office was established near the Baker Ranch
on February 18, 1895, discontinued on September 14, 1901, but reestablished on
November 1, 1909.20
In 1914 P.M. Baker, a son of George, sold his extensive holdings at Baker to Guy Saval,
a prosperous Basque sheepman from Elko who converted the ranch from cattle raising to
sheep rearing. During the next several years a number of Basque invested in Saval's firm
and settled in Baker. Thus, the settlement became commonly referred to as "Basque
Town" during World War I. After Saval sold his holdings to the Utah-Nevada Land &
Livestock Company in 1921, the old Baker Ranch was converted back to a cattle operation
and dude ranch.
After the establishment of Nevada National Forest an 80-acre administrative site was
established by the U.S. Forest Service in Baker in 1911. Some eleven years later Lehman
Caves was designated a national monument. Thus, the town increasingly came to depend
for its economic base on tourism and service-related businesses for recreation users of the
national forest and national monument. By 1952 the Baker community consisted of some
five ranches and sixteen families.21
19. Day and Ekins, comps., Milestones of Millard, pp. 181, 528; Days of the Old West (Deseret, Utah, 1961),
n.p.; and Read, White Pine Lang Syne, p. 139.
20. Day and Ekins, comps., Milestones of Millard, p. 530, and Helen S. Carlson, Nevada Place Names (Reno,
University of Nevada Press, 1974), p. 45.
21. U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service, Humboldt National Forest, Land and Resource
Management Plan, Appendices, 1986, F-4.
206
Garrison
While the community of Baker was forming, a similar settlement was being established
some eight miles southeast along lower Snake Creek. About 1870 Robert and Nick
Dowling began farming near the site of present-day Garrison, Utah. Within several years
D.A. Gonder and William Gregory had purchased the Dowling lands and commenced cattle
raising. Other families, including the Rowlands, Foremans, and Freemans soon settled in
the vicinity. In 1876 a cemetery was established, the six-month-old daughter of Charles W.
Rowland being the first to be buried there.
In 1898 Garrison officially became a town with the establishment of a post office, named
in honor of Mrs. Emma Garrison who was an early area school teacher and served as the
first postmistress. That year the first store was opened in Garrison by James and Clay,
and later a second store was established by E. Heckethorn. According to a clipping from
an unidentified newspaper, the town of Garrison comprised about a dozen families in 1911:
There are two general stores, here, one owned by Thos. Dearden and the
other by E. Heckethorn. There is also an amusement hall and J.H. Dearden
operates a hotel. Large crops of hay, grain, vegetables, alfalfa seed and some
fruit are raised here. Most of the ranches are watered from the reservoir to the
south, but two or three are watered by Snake Creek, a stream rising in the
mountain to the west and upon which is also located a saw mill. This would
be an admirable location for a flour mill as plenty of grain can be raised in this
valley.
Some fourteen years later the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Day Saints organized
a branch of its Deseret Stake in Garrison, the first church to be established in the Snake
Valley. By the early 1950s the Garrison community consisted of some 12 ranches and 25
families.22
Home Farm
The most recent settlement to be established in Snake Valley in the vicinity of present-
day Great Basin National Park was Home Farm in 1957. Led by its founder who had
taken the name Vitvan, the School of the Natural Order moved its headquarters from San
Marcos, California, to Home Farm, some three miles west of Baker. The sect, following the
teachings of its founder - a complex mixture of Eastern and Western religions, philosophy,
and science, selected the site for its communal settlement, because it was secluded,
provided land available for home sites and farming, and possessed a reliable water supply.
By the early 1980s Home Farm consisted of some 25 residents who farmed 320 acres
while studying and disseminating the teachings of Vitvan.23
22. Day and Ekins, comps., Milestones of Millard, pp. 530-31, and Unidentified newspaper clipping, Vertical
Files, Great Basin National Park. By the early 1950s the Garrison community consisted of some 12 ranches and
25 families.
23. Reno Gazette and Journal, January 24, 1982, and Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National Park," Part II,
pp. 730-31.
207
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION DEVELOPMENT IN SNAKE AND SPRING
VALLEYS
As the number of settlers in Snake and Spring valleys increased, there was increasing
need for transportation and communication development to tie these areas to the larger
Great Basin region. A discussion of this development will deal with roads, railroads,
aircraft, newspapers, mail, and electricity.
Roads
Following the arrival of the first settlers in Snake and Spring valleys and the location of
mining strikes in the Snake Mountains in 1869 the first wagon roads were built to connect
the valley ranches and extract timber and minerals from the range. Often the earliest
routes took the most direct paths across the flat valley bottoms between ranches and
settlements or followed pre-existing game trails along watercourses that provided relatively
easy access into the mountains. As the population in the valleys and mountains increased
so did the number of wagon roads.
The first wagon road connecting Snake Valley with other geographical areas extended
from southern Snake Valley eastward across the Sevier Desert to the Utah villages of
Deseret and Oasis, near present-day Delta. This ninety-mile road entered Snake Valley
at Cowboy Pass in the Confusion Range, north of present-day U.S. Highway 6-50, through
King Canyon. From there the road continued to Knoll Springs and the Conger and Robison
ranches, but it was later extended over Sacramento Pass to Osceola and finally to Taylor
and Ward in the Steptoe Valley.
A second road was developed eastward some seventy miles from Snake Valley to the
mining town of Frisco, Utah. Following completion of the Union Pacific railway branch line
to that town in 1901, this route became the principal freight and mail artery into Snake
Valley. Today this general route is traversed by Utah State Highway 21 from Milford to
Garrison.
Early freighting operations on these two principal routes required sturdy wagons pulled by
four-, six-, or eight-horse teams, depending upon the weight of the load. Freighting was
a year-round activity, but it was beset with many problems. In summer dust and lack of
water were constant problems while periodic cloudbursts washed out roads and bridges and
resulted in mud in which the wagons would sometimes bog down. Winter snows often
blocked the roads in the mountains and isolated travelers. When the snows were too deep
for wagon travel, pack horses were sometimes used. Spring thawing left the roads a
muddy morass that hindered travel.
The first automobile, a Metz, was introduced in Snake Valley by Joseph Dearden in 1910.
By the early 1920s the automobile era had arrived, but the cost of gasoline, poor roads,
and inadequate road signs hampered travel considerably in central eastern Nevada.
In 1920 the first transcontinental artery was built across the central Great Basin. Known
as the Grand Central Highway, it later became U.S. Highway 50. The highway remained
a gravel road in Nevada and Utah until 1947 when asphalt surfacing was commenced.
That year the section of roadway from Ely to Baker, which had become U.S. Highway 6-
50, was paved, and in 1952 the portion from Baker to Delta, Utah, was paved.
Other roads in Snake and Spring valleys were not paved until the mid-1950s. Utah State
Highway 21 was paved from Milford to the Nevada state line in 1955, thus providing a
second paved approach road into Snake Valley. In Spring Valley, U.S. Highway 93,
208
connecting Ely with Las Vegas, was paved about the same time, as was a county road
serving local ranches.24
In response to the these highway improvements and the increasing national interest in
Lehman Caves, several roads were built from Baker to the caves between 1920 and 1948.
In 1920 a county road was constructed to Lehman Caves, much of the work being done
by Baker residents on a volunteer basis in the hope that better roads would aid the growth
of tourism.25 This road branched off from present-day Nevada State Highway 73 just below
Baker, crossed Lehman Creek about five miles from the cave, and led to the cave entrance
through the present-day Great Basin National Park residence-maintenance area. Later a
second approach road to the cave was built by the county, commencing just above Baker,
passing through the present-day Home Farm, and paralleling Lehman Creek for a distance
before crossing it just west of the northeast boundary corner of the national monument.
These roads were mediocre at best, being characterized by mud, rocks, washouts, dust,
ruts, and chuckholes. Finally in 1947, after U.S. Highway 6-50 had been paved between
Ely and Baker, construction commenced on Nevada State Highway 74 from Baker to
Lehman Caves. This paved highway, which was completed in 1948 and replaced the two
earlier approach roads, has served as the entrance to Lehman Caves and Great Basin
National Park to the present time.26
By the early 1970s there were reportedly some 152 miles of road in the Snake Range,
including nearly 84 miles constructed by the U.S. Forest Service and 66 miles built by the
county and local mining, grazing, and timber interests. Most of this mileage was primitive,
low standard and unsurfaced roadway, used primarily by local residents. With the
exception of the paved roads in Lehman Caves National Monument and Asilo Verde Drive
built by the Forest Service to the Wheeler Peak Campground in 1967, most of these roads
were generally suitable only for jeep or high clearance vehicles.27
Railroads
Until the early 1900s Snake and Spring valleys were geographically isolated from the
region's transcontinental railroads. During the first two decades of the twentieth century,
however, three branch lines were built from these routes to Frisco and Erickson Siding,
Utah, and Ely, Nevada, in response to mining development operations. These rail lines
contributed to the economic and transportation development of the area.
In 1901 the first branch line was constructed from the Union Pacific line at Milford to Frisco
for the purpose of exporting ore to Salt Lake City for refining. The 15-mile branch line thus
provided Snake Valley residents with accessible rail service. Although Frisco was nearly
24. Trexler, Lehman Caves . ... Its Human Story, pp. 42-44. An entertaining description of an automobile
trip from Tonopah to Baker in August 1922 may be found in Cada C. Boak, "Dedication of Lehman Caves National
Monument: Ascent and Perilous Descent of Mount Wheeler, August 1 922," Nevada Historical Society Quarterly,
XVI (Summer 1973), 102-04.
25. Ely Record, July 20. 1920.
26. Trexler, Lehman Caves . ... Its Human Story, pp. 42-44. During the late 1970s, Nevada state highways
were renumbered. Thus, Nevada 73 became Nevada 487 and Nevada 74 became Nevada 488.
27. Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National Park," Part II, p. 627.
209
seventy miles southeast from Garrison, this branch line aided Snake Valley ranchers and
Snake range mining districts by providing them with an outlet for their products.28
On September 29, 1906, the Nevada Northern Railroad was completed from the Southern
Pacific line at Cobre, Nevada, to Ely for the purpose of transporting the recently-discovered
copper deposits at Ruth. This line extended for some 150 miles and served ranchers in
both Snake and Spring valleys. It was particularly important to residents of Spring Valley
since it saved them from crossing Sacramento Pass to reach Frisco.29
In 1917 the Deep Creek Railroad was completed from the Western Pacific Railway line at
Wendover, Utah, southward to Erickson Siding, some 80 miles from the Lehman Caves
area. This standard gauge line was constructed to tap the rich ore deposits of the Gold
Hill area on the northern end of the Deep Creek Range. It provided a rail outlet for Snake
Valley stockraisers as well as mining operators in the Snake Mountains.30
Aircraft
Because of the relative inaccessibility of many portions of Snake and Spring valleys, small
aircraft have become important to area ranching and mining interests during the twentieth
century. Several of the larger ranches have unimproved dirt landing strips for small planes.
There are two unimproved dirt airfields at Garrison and Baker. The former is located one
mile south of town and has two runways which are approximately 3,500 and 2,000 feet
long. The Baker landing strip is located adjacent to present Nevada State Highway 487
about one mile south of the community and has a smaller landing area. The nearest
commercial airport to present Great Basin National Park is Yelland Field in Ely.31
Newspapers
One of the early means of communication in White Pine County was the newspaper.
During the White Pine mining rush the first issue of the White Pine Daily News was printed
on December 26, 1868, at Treasure City by W.H. Pitchford and Robert W. Simpson. The
press and material, as well as the publishers and printers, had come from the Reese River
Reveille office at Austin, the equipment having first been used in printing the Silver Bend
Reporter. The News began as a weekly, but by February 1869 the newspaper was
advanced to a tri-weekly and in March to a daily. In January 1870 the newspaper was
moved to Hamilton, the seat of recently-established White Pine County, under the
leadership of its new editor and part-owner, William J. Forbes. The newspaper remained
in Hamilton until November 9, 1878, when its operation was suspended for two years. The
paper resumed publication in April 1880 under its new owners and editors, W.R. Forest and
W.L Davis, before being moved to Cherry Creek in January 1881, Taylor in August 1885,
and Ely in September 1888. The newspaper was transferred to East Ely in November
1908, where it remained until going out of publication in June 1923. Thus, the newspaper,
which spanned some 54 years, was published in virtually all of the county's mining boom
28. Ibid, Part II, p. 628.
29. Read, White Pine Lang Syne, p. 284.
30. Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National Park," p. 629. For more data on the Deep Creek Railroad, see
Myrick, Railroads of Nevada, I, 337.
31. Ibid, Part II, pp. 629-30.
210
towns with the exception of Ward where the Ward Reflex was published during that town's
boom years.
The other principal newspaper to emanate from the White Pine mining rush was the Daily
Inland Empire, first published at Hamilton in March 1869 by James J. Ayers and Charles
A.V. Putnam. After the White Pine Daily News moved to Hamilton in January 1870 a fierce
rivalry followed between the two publications, and on April 10, 1870, the Daily Inland
Empire suspended operations.
Ward had several newspapers during its boom days in the late 1870s and early 1880s.
In October 1876 Mark W. Musgrove commenced the Ward Miner as a semi-weekly (later
enlarging it to a tri-weekly), but sold it to Robert W. Simpson in April 1877. Simpson
turned the newspaper into the successful Ward Reflex, a semi-weekly publication until
becoming a weekly in October 1877. The newspaper was moved to Taylor in June 1884
where it became known as the White Pine Reflex. The following year it was sold to Davis,
owner of the White Pine Daily News who suspended publication of the Reflex. In 1881
three other short-lived newspapers commenced publication in Ward - Spirit of the West,
Union, and Watchman.
Cherry Creek had a newspaper that began publication in January 1878. The Independent
was published by Benjamin M. Barney for two months, first as a tri-weekly and then as a
weekly. In March 1878 Barney moved to Reno to help found the Daily Record after selling
the Independent to A.V. Hoyt, a Cherry Creek attorney who published it as a weekly until
1879.
There were three other early newspapers that were published for brief periods in the White
Pine area. These included the Shermantown Reporter established in 1 869 by Edward F.
McElwain and V.E. Allen, the White Pine Evening Telegram published at Hamilton during
the winter of 1869, and the Schell Creek Prospect established at Schellbourne in 1872 by
Forbes and Pitchford.32
The four major White Pine County newspapers commenced in the twentieth century were
all based in Ely, which had become the county seat in 1885. In 1902 J.M. Lynch retired
from partnership in the White Pine Daily News to commence a new paper, the White Pine
Miner, but competition forced suspension of publication in February 1903. Following his
sale of the White Pine Daily News in 1904, John D. Crossette formed a partnership with
Benjamin Dial, and on March 4, 1905, they published the first issue of the Ely Mining
Record. Later, the paper became the independent weekly edition of the Ely Daily Times.
In the fall of 1906 D.S. Dickerson sold his interest in the White Pine Daily News and
commenced publication of the Ely Mining Expositor in October. The newspaper was
expanded from a weekly to a daily in May 1907, but it ceased publication in January 1915.
Some five years later, on April 20, 1920, the Ely Daily Times began publication with Vail
M. Pittman, a brother of U.S. Senator Key Pittman and himself a later governor of Nevada,
serving as editor. The newspaper ultimately purchased the aforementioned Ely Mining
Record, which became a weekly edition of the Times.33
32. Hubert Howe Bancroft, The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, Volume XXV, History of Nevada, Colorado,
and Wyoming, 1540-1888 (San Francisco, The History Company, Publishers, 1890), p. 308; Angel, History of
Nevada, pp. 330-32; Elliott, "Early History of White Pine County," M.A. thesis, pp. 73-77; and Richard E.
Lingenfelter, The Newspapers of Nevada, 1858-1958: A History and Bibliography (San Francisco, John Howell-
Books, 1964), pp. 33-34, 41-42, 56-57, 76-77, 79-80, 97, 118-19.
33. Lingenfelter, Newspapers of Nevada, pp. 1 20-22.
211
Mail
Regular mail service in Snake Valley was inaugurated on March 28, 1881, after
establishment of the valley's first post office at Burbank. Lizzie Schumacher was appointed
as postmistress and served in that capacity for the next eighteen years. At first the mail
came to the valley from Pioche. About fifty miles north of Garrison was a salt marsh, and
wagonloads of salt were hauled by ox team or mule team to Pioche to be used in the ore
smelter mills. The freighting outfits took the outgoing mail from Snake Valley with them
and returned with the incoming mail.
Later in 1881 a tri-weekly mail route was established from Taylor and Osceola to Frisco,
Utah. The line was operated by Gilmer and Saulsbury under a four-year contract for which
they received $36,000 per year. The mail was transported in one- or two-horse rigs, but
was eventually terminated because of mail frauds.34
According to B.F. Miller, an early resident in eastern Nevada, there were 2,792 miles of
stage mail routes in White Pine County prior to 1890. All routes were awarded by the
government to "eastern professional bidders," subcontracts being awarded by the
contractors to local people with the contractors retaining most of the money. These routes
were:
Ely to Eureka, ninety miles, six round trips a week, equivalent to one thousand
and eighty miles of service.
Cole Creek to Eureka, fifty miles, one trip a week, one hundred miles.
Cherry Creek to Wells, one hundred miles, three round trips weekly, six hundred
miles.
Cherry Creek to Aurum, thirty miles, one round trip weekly, sixty miles.
Cherry Creek to Ely, fifty miles, two round trips weekly, two hundred miles.
Osceola to Geyser, thirty miles, one round trip weekly, sixty miles.
Ely to Frisco, Utah, one hundred and forty-three miles, two round trips weekly,
five hundred and seventy-two miles.
Ely to Sunnyside, sixty miles, one round trip weekly, one hundred and twenty
miles.
Miller elaborated further:
At this time there was keen bidding by the easterners, who cut the contract
figure at each successive letting of bids, and as a consequence the local sub-
contractors, who carried the burden, were compelled to take less for their
services. The result was that the service suffered and the sub-contractors in
many cases were unable to meet their obligations, so that at times the
guarantors were compelled to step in and take over the service.
Old carts, buckboards and dilapidated wagons, in fact almost anything that
could be pressed into service, were used for carrying the mails, so that travelers
34. Angel, History of Nevada, p. 107, and Read, White Pine Lang Syne, p. 139.
212
who wished to visit the different towns on the routes could not secure adequate
accommodations and were forced to hire livery rigs. This naturally also cut into
profits that should have been made by the mail carriers.
As a result of the unsatisfactory mail service in the county, W.N. McGill and Abner C.
Cleveland agreed to underwrite the $100,000 bond of Miller and "help finance and equip
the various routes" if he would secure the mail contracts and act as general manager of
the service. Thus, Miller secured all the mail routes in White Pine County in 1890 and
operated them until 1904. By the latter date, there were 5,638 miles of mail stage lines
in the county, covering the following routes:
Cherry Creek to Wells, six times a week, one thousand two hundred miles.
Cherry Creek to Aurum, three times a week, one hundred and eighty miles.
Eureka to Ely, six times a week, one thousand and eighty miles.
To Hamilton, twice a week, operating by way of Six-Mile House, Currant Creek
and Duckwater, two hundred and eighty miles.
Cole Creek to Eureka, twice a week, two hundred miles.
Ely to Frisco, three times a week, eight hundred and fifty-eight miles.
Osceola to Pioche, twice a week, three hundred and sixty miles.
Ely and Sunnyside to Pioche, three times a week, seven hundred and twenty
miles.
Aurum and Cleveland to Osceola, twice a week, two hundred and sixty miles.
Ely to Duck Creek, twice a week, eighty miles.
Hamilton to Stockville, twice a week, one hundred and twenty miles.
Cherry Creek to Ely, three times a week, three hundred miles.35
During the late 1890s the subcontract for the mail route between Frisco and Ely was
awarded to Thomas Davis and Joseph Dearden. Since Garrison was centrally located
between these two towns, a post office was established there in 1898 to serve as
headquarters for the stage service. Mrs. Emma Garrison, a school teacher for whom the
town was named, became the first postmistress. The mail was carried by coach on a tri-
weekly basis, but mail had to be delivered by horseback when snow blocked the mountain
passes.36
Between 1882 and 1927 additional post offices were established in the Snake and Spring
valley areas to provide mail service to mining camps and farm settlements in the vicinity
of present-day Great Basin National Park. These post offices included:
35. Miller, "Nevada In the Making," 432-35.
36. Day and Ekins, comps., Milestones of Millard, p. 531.
213
Baker - February 18, 1895-September 14, 1901
November 1, 1909-
Cleveland - July 24, 1882-February 15, 1906
Cleveland Ranch - April 19, 1917-November 17, 1924
Shoshone - May 9, 1896-August 31, 1959
Taft - February 23, 1909-April 19, 1917
Tungsten Mine - October 14, 1916-June 30, 1917
Yelland - November 17, 1924-January 15, 192737
Electricity
The isolation of Snake and Spring valleys until recent years is demonstrated by the fact
that electricity was not introduced until the early 1970s. While portions of Snake Valley
had electrical power as early as December 1970, construction of the rural electrification
cooperative system was not completed by Mt. Wheeler Power, Inc., until March 1973. This
event was heralded as one of the most significant improvements to be introduced in the
valleys during the twentieth century. After electricity was introduced a television translator
station was built in 1974, thus bringing daily communications to the area. Prior to that time
area residents relied on radio broadcasts, but the vicinity always has been and continues
to be a relatively poor radio reception area.38
DEVELOPMENT OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN THE SNAKE RANGE
As settlers entered central eastern Nevada to participate in the mining and agricultural
development of the area, large amounts of timber were required. Lumber was required to
shore the mine shafts, construct and heat buildings, install water flumes, fuel the mills, and
make coke for smelting the ore. Ranchers needed lumber for houses, barns, corrals,
fences, and heating purposes. Thus, the timber industry quickly became a significant part
of the economic development in the Snake Range region.
Mining operations in the Snake Mountains that commenced in the late 1860s led to logging
of higher elevation forest species such as Douglas fir, white fir, and Englemann spruce.
Even the largely inaccessible bristlecone pine stands were not immune to logging as there
is evidence that such trees on the slopes of Mount Washington were used to develop the
St. Lawrence Mine and related operations.
With the arrival of settlers in Snake and Spring valleys logging became a necessity for the
development of homesteads, farms, and ranches. The first timber to be cut consisted of
native cottonwood trees that lined the lower stream courses entering the valleys and the
accessible low elevation stands of juniper, pinyon pine, and ponderosa pine. The
cottonwoods and pines were used for construction of rough-hewn pioneer homes, ranch
buildings, and corrals, while the juniper was used primarily for building fences. The local
forests also supplied settlers with pinyon pine nuts and wood for fuel.
37. Cultural Resource Record of the Moriah Planning Area, pp. 97-98. For more data on postal service in
Nevada, see Robert P. Harris, Nevada Postal History: 1861 to 1972 (Las Vegas, Nevada Publications, 1973).
Despite the establishment of these early mail routes and post offices, daily mail service to the Snake Valley
communities did not commence until 1988. Prior to that time mail was delivered three times per week. United
Parcel Service provided fast freight delivery in the mid-1970s, and Federal Express began service to the valley in
1989. Letter, Denys Baker to author, January 28, 1990.
38. Letter, Denys Baker to author, January 28, 1990. For more data on the introduction of electricity see
Jeannette S. Griggs, Let There Be Light: Mt. Wheeler Power REA Cooperative 999 (Forest Grove, Oregon, Times
Litho Print, 1974).
214
After the timber was cut, horse-drawn drag-line teams were utilized to bring the logs out
of the canyons. The logs were then loaded on wagons and hauled to the settlements.
Often it would take up to three days to bring the logs out of the mountains.39
Visitors to the Schell Creek, White Pine, Egan, and Snake ranges in the late 1800s noted
the stands of timber. In his History of Nevada Angel discussed the timber resources in the
various mining districts of the region. In the Lincoln Mining District which included Mount
Washington and Lincoln Peak on the west side of the Snake Range, for instance, he noted
that timber was abundant, consisting of fir, white and yellow pine, tamarack, juniper, nut
pine, and mountain mahogany. In some parts of the district trees were "three feet in
diameter and 175 feet high."40
To serve the lumber needs of the area's settlers and mining operations sawmills were
erected. In 1869, for instance, twelve sawmills were in operation in the White Pine Range
to provide timber for the mining rush, lumber being "worth from $100 to $200 per
thousand." By 1881, according to Angel, there was still "a large quantity of sawable timber
on the Snake range, and considerable on the Schell Creek range." All of the mountains
in the county remained "well covered with nut pine and mountain mahogany;" which were
"excellent for charcoal and fuel."41
Numerous sawmills were erected in the Snake Range during the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries. Mills were located in Strawberry, Lehman, Baker, Snake, and Lexington
creek canyons and in the South Fork of the Big Wash, all tributaries to Snake Valley.42
The burgeoning sawmill industry in the Snake Range boomed with the emergence of the
Osceola Mining District as a prime gold-producing area in the 1870s and the construction
of the West and East ditches in the late 1880s. The ditches, comprising some 34 miles
of waterway, required vast amounts of timber since wooden flumes were necessary to carry
the water across the mountain ravines and alluvium bottoms. Several mills, including one
owned by Calvin Warlick in the South Fork of Big Wash and one operated by Tilford and
Mercham in Baker Creek Canyon, contributed lumber for the construction effort, but the mill
erected by W.H. Hendrie on Hendrie Creek near Mount Moriah was the largest supplier.43
The Hendrie sawmill continued to operate throughout the 1890s. During that decade James
H. Marriott, who managed extensive mining operations at Osceola, purchased the mill. In
1899 W.A. Butson bought the mill and resumed its operation under the management of
Charles Bliss of Snake Valley while at the same time looking for a new location for the mill
where timber was more plentiful.44
39. Cultural Resource Record of the Moriah Planning Area, p. 95, and Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National
Park," Part II, pp. 612-15. For further information on the historical uses of Nevada's woodlands, see James A.
Young and Jerry D. Budy, "Historical Use of Nevada's Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands," Journal of Forest History, July
1979, 113-21.
40. Angel, History of Nevada, p. 654.
41. Ibid., pp. 648-49.
42. Read, White Pine Lang Syne, p. 154.
43. Ibid., and Miller, "Nevada in the Making," 364.
44. White Pine Daily News, October 5, 26, 1 899.
215
The mill operated by Warlick in the South Fork of Big Wash was generally referred to as
the Lexington sawmill during the late 1880s and 1890s. On February 15, 1900, the White
Pine Daily News reported that Joseph Stoddard had "leased the Lexington sawmill" and
would "soon be ready to fill orders."45 The newspaper noted on June 7 that William
Justesan made a trip to "Stoddard's Mill" and "loaded with lumber for J.H. Marriott of
Osceola."46 With the rising demand for lumber in Ely, a number of men, including W.B.
Graham, Joseph Gilbert, George Gilbert, and Ed Lake, began hauling lumber to that town
during the fall of 1900 and spring of 1901.47 The mill shut down temporarily in August
1901, but by early 1902 Stoddard was again hauling lumber to Ely with "his four big
grays."48 In May 1902 it was reported that Stoddard was continuing to produce "first-class
lumber" at his Lexington sawmill and hauling it to Ely.49
By the fall of 1 902 the sawmill in the South Fork of Big Wash was being operated by the
New York and Nevada Copper Company. Apparently, Rube Van Volkenberg managed the
mill for the Ely-based firm, because the White Pine Daily News reported on November 20,
1902, that he was operating the mill, "turning out several thousand feet of lumber each
day."50
Nearly three years later, on September 7, 1905, the newspaper reported that the Ely-
based Nevada Consolidated Copper Company had "contracted with O. Remmen to take all
the lumber he can turn out at the company's saw mill in Snake Valley." Remmen, it
reported, "left last week for the scene of his new labors" and planned to "start the mill up
at once." The article noted that "good saw logs" were "plentiful in the immediate vicinity
of the mill," and that Remmen expected "to keep the mill running at its full capacity the
remainder of the season."51
By the early 1900s another sawmill was in operation in upper Snake Creek Canyon below
present Johnson Lake. On September 4, 1906, the White Pine Daily News reported that
the "Tilford brothers have just completed a deal for the sawmill at the head of Snake Creek
and Blackhorse will soon be a wooden town, instead of canvas, as now."52 In later years
this mill would be used by Alfred Johnson to cut lumber while developing his mining
operations near Johnson Lake.
When L. Von Wernstedt of the U.S. Forest Service investigated the Snake Range for
possible inclusion in a national forest, he commented on the existing conditions and future
prospects of the timber industry in the area. He noted:
45. White Pine Daily News, February 15, 1900.
46. White Pine Daily News, June 7, 1900.
47. White Pine Daily News, October 18, 1900, and January 3, May 2, 1901.
48. White Pine Daily News, August 8, 15, 1901, and January 2, 1902.
49. White Pine Daily News, May 29, 1902. Also see ibid., February 20, April 3, 1902.
50. White Pine Daily News, November 20, 1902.
51. White Pine Daily News, September 7, 1905. By the early 1920s M.H. Osborne, a rancher in Big Wash,
owned the sawmill in South Fork as well as one along Strawberry Creek. Assessment Book, 1923, White Pine
County, Vol. 2, White Pine County Courthouse, Ely.
52. White Pine Daily News, September 4, 1 906.
216
Lumbering has been carried on in the Snake Mountains more or less
intermittently since the sixties. The timber has been used for building up the
various mining camps, Ward, Ely, and Osceola. There have been mills on
Williams Creek on the west side, and on the Strawberry, Snake, and Lexington
creeks on the east side of the Snake range proper. On Mt. Moraja there have
been mills in two of the canyons on the south and east side, Williams Canyon
on the south and Henry Canyon. At the present there are three mills in the
Snake Mountains, on the east side and in the canyons just mentioned. There
is no mill on Mt. Moraja; the timber is less accessible on this mountain. These
mills at the time of examination were cutting lumber for the mines at Ely and
for a new mine in the Moraja range. Probably since the railroad was built into
Ely no timber is cut any more for use in that place. It has not been possible
to ascertain how much lumber has been cut from the Snake range but probably
10 to 15 million feet has been cut at various times. The lumber cut has been
mainly yellow pine, Douglas fir, and some balsam. The cuttings have all been
confined to the lower elevations and no spruce has been touched. There are
no bodies of yellow pine of any importance outside of the canyons where the
mills are located, and most of it has been cut out. The amount of yellow pine
left is small, probably for the whole range not over 4 million feet besides young
growth and trees less than six inches in diameter.
Regarding the amount of timber on the Snake range it can not be given except
very roughly. About 65,000 acres are timbered, half of it being dense timber.
Counting in everything, saw timber and prop timber, the heavy areas as mapped
at least average 2,000 feet per acre while they sometimes run 8,000 feet per
acre. This would indicate that there is, at the least calculation, 75 million feet
on the Snake range and 10 million on Mt. Moraja. How much of this timber
that is commercial will depend not only on the location but, in the main, on the
need for lumber in the locality.
Lumber brought from the railroad could not be obtained for less than $55 to $63
in this country. The cost of lumber is now from $23 to $30 where it is used,
so that evidently there could be spent at least $15 to $20 on increased cost of
logging before these prices were reached. The cost of logging is now given as
$9. It is evident that with the cost of logging reaching $25 to $30 almost any
timber in these mountains could be reached and that at least 35,000,000 feet
might be called merchantable where lumber must be had; most of this very
likely could be logged for $15. Such a high price would probably be almost
prohibitive for settlers and the cuttings for mining purposes should therefore not
be located on the best sites. It is possible that mining timber can still be
brought into Ely for the same cost as it is now obtained for on the railroad if
the companies operate the mills themselves, as was done at the time of the
examination. Cost of lumber at the mill is $18. The demand for lumber is
uneven and the amount required by the settlements is naturally inconsiderable
and will be at intervals only.53
During the 1930s James Deardon opened a sawmill at Garrison. By 1961 he had cut and
sawed usable lumber in excess of 1,000,000 board feet, and in 1957 he harvested some
30,000 board feet of ponderosa pine from the North Fork of Big Wash. After the Forest
53. "Report on the Proposed Ely, Steptoe, Osceola, and Snake National Forest, Nevada," by L. Von Wernstedt,
Forest Expert, Forest Service, 1906, RG 49, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
217
Service established the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area in 1959, timber-cutting was excluded
from that portion of the Snake Range. Thereafter, the timber supply for the sawmill came
largely from Mt. Moriah.54
54. 1961 Hearings, p. 78.
218
CHAPTER NINE
EUROAMERICAN AND NATIVE AMERICAN RELATIONSHIPS
IN NEVADA: 1850s-1910s
INTRODUCTION
After reviewing the historical development of mining operations in the Snake Range and
agricultural and socioeconomic activities in Snake and Spring valleys, it is important to
understand the impact of Euroamerican culture on the lifeways, customs, and welfare of the
Native Americans in the area. Thus, this chapter will present a discussion of the interaction
between the two cultures and the ultimate demise or Native American culture in the face
of the onslaught of Western civilization.
EARLY EUROAMERICAN AND NATIVE AMERICAN INTERACTION IN NEVADA PRIOR
TO THE EARLY 1860s
Contacts between Euroamericans and Native Americans in present-day Nevada commenced,
so far as is known with certainty, in the 1 820s when British and American fur trappers and
Mexican traders entered the Great Basin. Contacts were sporadic for several decades, and
native life was apparently altered little by these direct intrusions except in southern and
eastern Nevada where New Mexican, British, American, and Ute slave raiders and travelers
precipitated population dislocations, and along the Humboldt River where fur trappers helped
to deplete the native food supply and create sporadic disturbances. More intensive
relationships commenced gradually during the 1840s, culminating in the horde of Gold Rush
travelers in 1849 and the eventual establishment of non-Native American settlements in the
Carson Valley, Snake Valley, and Las Vegas areas, primarily during the 1850s.
It would appear that most intruders did not appreciate or did not care about the importance
of the natural food supply for the Native Americans. The Humboldt River Valley, Carson
Valley, and Las Vegas regions were depleted of food resources, and the Indians were
forced to make adjustments in their life patterns. The trappers, traders, and emigrants
impacted adversely the vegetation and wildlife of these areas, thus disrupting the economy
and lifeways of the Native Americans who occupied the land. In retaliation, the Southern
Paiutes initiated raids in Southern California, while the Northern Paiutes, Shoshones, and
Washoes responded with occasional armed resistance to white intrusion. On the whole,
however, the natives were extremely cautious in their response, and several leaders
counseled friendship with the invaders.
Nevertheless, Native Americans were often offended by white attitudes as they seldom
demonstrated respect for native property rights and often seized desirable natural resources
without offering to negotiate or purchase. To protect settlers and emigrants the U.S.
Government established boundaries in Indian country based on Euroamerican standards of
fixed landholdings, thus ignoring traditional Indian claims to flexible territories considered as
the property of specific tribal and linguistic groups. Regarding land, lakes, pine-nut groves
and other resources as their property, the natives attempted to prevent white use. These
early efforts to protect native property were nullified, however, by the growing strength of
the Euroamerican population and neglect by the federal government.
By the winter of 1859-60 conditions in present-day Nevada had reached a point where
warfare was almost inevitable. The natives had suffered from a severe cholera epidemic
several years before, and this was followed by several winters in which Indians starved to
death. Seeing the connection between starvation and white encroachment on their hunting,
fishing, and food-gathering grounds, Indians in present-day western Nevada were forced to
219
steal. Tensions were increased, because reserves that had been set aside for Indians in
Ruby and Deep valleys of present-day eastern Nevada had been allowed to disappear,
apparently because of lack of funds and frequently changing personnel. White promises of
aid were seldom fulfilled, and gradually Indians came to discount and despise the word of
government officials. Fueled by white atrocities against Indian women and children,
hostilities developed into the Pyramid Lake War.1
Near the end of this brief but bloody war white military officers met with Paiute Chief
Numaga. He gave an impassioned speech which summarized, in his broken English, the
bewilderment of his culture:
Irishman come - Dutchman come - American man come - China-John come,
digum hole - find up money heap - good money find 'urn, Paiutes' money, no
give 'urn Paiutes money! White man put him hand over money, and no give
Paiute any money - give 'urn Paiute heap God-dam, shake him - beat him -
kill him - Big Father help Dutchman - help Irishman - Help American man -
help China-John man - why no help keep Paiute man? Paiute man heap good
long time - no give 'urn nothing - Paiute man no kill 'urn whites - whitey man
kill Paiutes - Paiutes heap fight 'urn - Solder man come - Numaga no sabe!
Numaga fight - Numaga die, no care no more"2
As a result of the Pyramid Lake War the federal government gave some attention to the
condition of native Nevadans. Reserves were established on an informal basis at Pyramid
Lake and Walker River, some improvements were made at the latter reserve, and supplies
were distributed occasionally. However, troops were stationed permanently at Fort Churchill
to prevent the natives from retaliating effectively against further intrusion.
On the whole, however, the early 1860s were a depressing period for the Nevada Indians
with little being done to improve their lot. A cavalry lieutenant passing through Ruby Valley
in 1861 reported to his superiors the destitute condition of the Indians:
They usually [live] during the winter on pine nuts and grass seed, together with
what little game they [can] kill. There are no pine nuts this year, and all, or
nearly all, of their grass has been cut by the stage company or citizens living
on the road. The chiefs and also the Indian agent tell me that unless [the]
Government gives them something to eat they will starve to death this winter.
If any outbreak occurs it will be because they are driven to it by starvation.3
Many travelers were appalled by the degraded Indians in eastern Nevada and wrote of their
experiences with these people in condescending terms. One such account was provided
by Mark Twain in Roughing It (1860):
Along the road and hanging about the stations, were small lean, "scrawny"
creatures; in complexion a dull black like the ordinary American negro; their
faces and hands bearing dirt which they had been hoarding and accumulating
for months, years, and even generations, according to the age of the proprietor;
a silent, sneaking, treacherous-looking race; taking note of everything, covertly,
1. Jack D. Forbes, Nevada Indians Speak (Reno, University of Nevada Press, 1967), pp. 1-3.
2. Quoted in Ferol Egan, Sand in a Whirlwind (New York, Doubleday & Co., 1972), p. 269.
3. U.S. War Department, War of the Rebellion Records, Series I, Vol. L, Part I (E.M. Balser to the Adjutant
of Fort Churchill, Nevada, October [20], 1861), p. 667.
220
like all the other "Noble Red Men" that we (do not) read about, and betraying
no sign in their countenances; indolent, everlastingly patient and tireless, like all
other Indians; prideless beggars . . . hungry, always hungry, and yet never
refusing anything that a hog would eat, though often eating what a hog would
decline; hunters but having no higher ambition than to kill and eat jackass
rabbits, crickets, and grasshoppers, and embezzle carrion from the buzzards
and coyotes; savages who, when asked if they have the common belief in a
Great Spirit show a something which almost amounts to emotion thinking whisky
is referred to; a thin scattering race of almost naked black children . . . who
produce nothing at all, and have no villages, and no gatherings together into
strictly defined tribal communities - a people whose only shelter is a rag cast
on a bush to keep off a portion of the snow, and yet who inhabit one of the
most rocky, wintry, repulsive wastes that our country or any other can exhibit.4
The Nevada Shoshones and Gosiutes engaged in occasional warfare with whites along the
Humboldt River and the Overland stage route during the early 1860s. This intermittent
warfare was stimulated by the continued destruction of native food sources, the lack of
reservations in northern and eastern Nevada, and the appropriation of important food-
gathering sites by the Overland Stage Company. Livestock overgrazed the depleted fragile
grasslands, thereby interrupting the Native American food-gathering cycle. The establishment
of Fort Ruby, the hanging and shooting of natives by whites, and the loose organization of
the Shoshones, however, served to prevent the outbreak of large-scale warfare.
As a result of Gosiute raids on the Overland Stage Company lines, a Utah Superintendency
subagent met with them at Pleasant Valley near present-day Provo in 1 859. He attempted
to pacify the Indians with promises of aid, little of which would materialize. The lengthy
subagent's report of the council read:
On the 25th of March, when I arrived at "Pleasant valley," I found about one
hundred Indians, in all, waiting for me. They complained of being hungry, not
having had anything to eat for some days. I asked them why the others did not
come in? They said that they "were afraid that the soldiers would kill them."
They thought it was a trap to have them all killed, because they had been
stealing. I sent out more runners to bring them in. Five days after, my runners
returned, and said they would not come, as they were afraid of being killed.
On the 2d day of April, I had a beef killed, and held a council, with seventy-
three warriors present. The first thing, we proceeded and elected "Arra-won-
nets" (an old man) "head chief," and "Ka Vana" sub-chief, without any
opposition. I then told them I had come here to say that the "great father"
wishes to treat you as his children, and will make you a good farm, if you will
work, so that you will have something to eat. He will help you to build your
"wigwams," and help to clothe you, if you will do as he tells you. Are you willing
to go and work like the whites, and help to raise grain, from which you can
make bread? They all answered, "Yes; that was good talk; it was what they
wanted." I told them I had heard of many cattle and mules being stolen by
them, and that the mail had been stopped and fired on while passing through
this country, with letters to their "great father;" and I would forgive them this
time; but if I heard of anything of the kind occurring again, the "great father"
would send many soldiers out, who would not leave one of them alive. Their
chief said, in reply, that none of his people should do anything wrong; they
would all be friends to the whites; and, should any depredations be committed
Mark Twain, Roughing It (Reprint ed., Cutchogue, New York, Buccaneer Books, 1986), pp. 154-56.
221
by any of his people, he would bring them in, and justice should be done. I
then had a beef killed for them, made them some presents, and they were all
well pleased. On the 3d, they all left for "Deep Creek."
I will here speak of a band of the "Gosha-Utes" that live fifty miles south of
this, and about one hundred and fifty miles west of Fillmore. They numbered
about one hundred, under chiefs "Ta-goo-pie" and "Wan-na-vah." I am told that
they are engaged in agriculture: we met two of them out hunting with squaws,
well mounted on good horses. I got them to return with me to Pleasant valley,
and I am much indebted to them for their assistance. They were present at both
councils, and in council they told those miserable wretches if they did not go
to work and quit stealing, they would bring their warriors over and kill every one
of them; that they were dogs and wolves, and not fit to live.
They were very anxious for me to come and see them, and give them some
instructions about farming. They have no implements of any kind, and I have
sent into the city for twelve hoes for them. They say that no agent has ever
visited them. From all accounts, they have from thirty to forty acres down in
wheat this year, and the only way they have to turn up the ground is with
sticks.5
TREATIES WITH GREAT BASIN NATIVE AMERICANS DURING THE 1860s
During the early 1 860s the federal government began to negotiate treaties with Great Basin
Indian tribes, in part to pacify the natives and in part to obtain the right of way for a
transcontinental railroad. Treaties, generally unfavorable to the Indians, were negotiated with
the Shoshones and Bannocks of Utah and Idaho, the Yahuskin Northern Paiutes of Oregon,
and the Gosiute Shoshones of the Deep Creek area.6
In August 1861 a Utah Indian agent met with Sho-kub, chief of the Western Shoshones in
Ruby Valley. Sho-kub declared that his people needed provisions and blankets "on account
of the monopoly of the grass in their country by the [Overland] mail company to feed their
stock, which deprived them of the seed which they have heretofore used as an article of
food." The Deep Creek and Ruby Valley reserves or "farms" established earlier had been
abandoned by the government. Councils were held with the Indians at Deep Creek, Ruby
Valley, Schell Creek, and Spring Valley Buttes, and the agent learned that the natives could
no longer fish, because "the overland mail company has built stations . . . and located men
and quartered stock about these spots, and the Indians no longer visit them." By late
December 1861 Sho-kub had died, his succession had been disputed, Indians had raided
mail stations in the Ruby Valley, and troops had been dispatched from Camp Floyd. In
addition, garrisoned forts were established at Fort Ruby and Schell Creek, manned by
California and Nevada volunteers. During 1862 the Gosiutes of White Horse were reported
to be extremely destitute, and it was said that the Shoshones would have starved but for
periodic aid from the Overland Stage Company employees.
New hostilities erupted in 1863 with attacks perpetrated by both sides. Stage company
losses included 150 horses stolen, 7 stations burned, and 16 men killed. Military attacks
by a company of California cavalry from Fort Ruby under the command of Captain S.P.
Smith against Indian camps resulted in the death of 24 Indians at Duck Creek on May 5,
5. Quoted in Forbes, Nevada Indians Speak, pp. 37-39.
6. Ibid., pp. 4-5.
222
23 Indians near the Cleveland Ranch in Spring Valley on May 6, and 5 Indians some 20
miles north of Cherry Creek in August. These military reprisals eventually forced the
Shoshones and Gosiutes to make peace.7
During this period of tension federal agents chose to commence negotiations with the
Nevada Indians. On June 28, 1862, James D. Doty, Governor of Utah Territory, made the
following report to Governor James W. Nye of Nevada Territory regarding a treaty he made
with the Indians in Ruby Valley:
I have the honor to submit this report to [you from] the Ruby Valley in
accordance with your instructions under date of Dec. 16, 1861. I started
overland by stage on the evening of Dec. 18 for Ruby Valley and I arrived at
Smith Creek Dec. 19 at 8 P.M. This is the first station in the Shoshone Country.
The Summitt of the mountains west of Smith Valley being the boundary line
between the Paiutes and the Shoshonies. On Dec. 20, 1861 at 11 A.M. I arrived
at Reese River country where I met the chief TooTiania, and we had a meeting
with about one hundred of his band. I had a very satisfactory interview with
them. The chief assured me of his friendship for our Government. Henry
Butterfield understood and is the interpreter for them. The whites are very well
acquainted with chief TooTiania, of the western band of the Shoshone Nation.
Also chief Chain assured [me] his property belonged to the western band as did
the wild game. He is not willing to give away any to white persons as he don't
know how the treaty with the whites binds the whites. Deer is the means of
providing food for them, making their living on meat. The tribes would be willing
to go hunting any time of the year, winter or summer months in the state of
Nevada. The chief accepts land, water rights, timber or would consider half
interest in each to correspond with our Government. (2) The date of Dec. 20,
1861 I had a ver[y] satisfactory interview with the chief and he assured me of
his friendship for our Government, and that none of his band would under any
circumstances molest the stage or telegraph lines or any whites that might be
visiting or want to visit or reside on his land. He seemed to regret that there
were two disturbances between the whites and the Shoshones and volunteered
to go with me and assist in bringing about a settlement.8
This treaty was unsatisfactory to the federal government since the Indians refused to
surrender any territory to the United States. Thus, on October 1, 1863, a new Treaty of
Ruby Valley was negotiated with the Western Shoshones. Nye and Doty recognized the
Western Shoshones as a separate group of Shoshone to distinguish them from the Gosiute
Shoshone to their east and the Northwestern Shoshone in present-day Utah and Idaho.
This treaty, the only official treaty ever signed by Nevada Indians, was unfavorable to the
natives, and there is an Indian tradition that it was forced upon them. However, the
Western Shoshones did not surrender any territory to the United States but merely agreed
to tolerate white settlers, allow transcontinental communication, and move to a reservation
within their own territory when and if one were established.9
7. Barry A. Price, "Boom Towns and Copper Camps: An Archeological Survey of Historic Sites in White Pine
County, Nevada," Prepared for State of Nevada, Division of Historic Preservation and Archeology, April 1987, p. 8.
8. Quoted in Forbes, Nevada Indians Speak, pp. 80-81.
9. Ibid., p. 5. See Appendix O for a copy of the treaty. Later, during the 1930s, the Shoshones would protest
the terms of this treaty and subsequent government action. Ibid., pp. 165-66, 187-88.
223
On October 12, 1863, Doty and Brigadier General Patrick E. Connor negotiated a similar
treaty with the Gosiutes in Utah Territory. In this treaty the Indians agreed that: (1) all
hostilities against the whites were to cease; (2) several routes of travel through their country
would be "forever free and unobstructed by them;" (3) military posts and station houses
could be erected wherever necessary; (4) telegraph, stage lines, and railways could be
constructed without molestation through any portion of the Gosiute country; (5) mines, mills,
and ranches could be established and timber taken; and (6) they would "abandon the
roaming life which they now lead, and become settled as herdsmen or agriculturists"
whenever the President of the United States deemed it expedient to remove them to
reservations. For its part, the U.S. Government, "in consequence of driving away and
destruction of game along the routes traveled by white men, and by the formation of
agricultural and mining settlements," agreed to pay the Gosiutes $1 ,000 a year for the next
twenty years. Article 8 of the treaty stated that nothing in the document implied a greater
"title or interest" to lands described therein, on the part of the Indians, than that which they
had possessed under the laws of Mexico. The treaty was ratified in 1864 and proclaimed
by President Abraham Lincoln on January 17, 1865.10
In spite of the strong wording of the treaties, they did not deprive the Indians of sovereignty
over their land. The documents were treaties of peace and amity rather than treaties of
cession. Although they gave the Indians no choice as to their ultimate removal, they did not
set aside specific areas for their relocation. Furthermore, the Indians probably had little
conception of what the various parts of the treaties implied, and there was undoubtedly
serious question as to whether newly-created chieftains really had authority to speak for
their respective tribes. In any event, the Indians continued to occupy their lands as if little
had happened, and overt hostilities ceased.11
Despite the promises in the treaties, however, the plight of Nevada Indians continued to
worsen throughout the 1860s as their lifeways and food sources were impacted by white
settlement. In 1864, for instance, a government report stated:
The Indians, in all this mountain country, cannot live any longer by hunting;
the game has disappeared, the old hunting-grounds are occupied by our people
to their exclusion. We must instruct them, therefore, in some other way of
making a living than the chase, or else support them ourselves in idleness, or
leave them to prey upon the emigration pouring into the country. For starving
Indians will steal, pillage, murder, and plunge the frontier, from time to time, into
all the horrors of savage warfare.12
Another government report issued two years later described the increasing plight of the
Indians:
South of Ruby Valley ... the fertile lands of this degraded people are being
taken from them, their grasses consumed, their groves of pine trees (pinon)
destroyed, and the scanty supply of game is being killed or driven away by
the invaders, whom the Indian has learned to regard as his natural enemies.
. . . They live in the depths of poverty, and are emaciated from hunger. When
10. Ibid, p. 85, and James B. Allen and Ted J. Warner, "The Gosiute Indians in Pioneer Utah," Utah Historical
Quarterly, XXXIX (Spring 1971), 168.
11. Allen and Warner, "Gosiute Indians in Pioneer Utah," 168.
12. Quoted in ibid., 170.
224
they steal horses, mules, and cattle, it is to appease the cravings of appetite
to keep themselves and their families from starvation.13
The continuing plight of the Southern Paiutes and Western Shoshones in the Great Basin
was described in a report prepared in 1873 by John Wesley Powell and George W. Ingalls.
After meetings with delegations of Indians throughout Nevada and Utah Territory, the two
commissioners recognized that traditional Indian lifeways had been shattered by white
settlement:
They are broken into many small tribes, and their homes so interspersed among
the settlements of white men, that their power is entirely broken and no fear
should be entertained of a general war with them. The time has passed when
it was necessary to buy peace. It only remains to decide what should be done
with them for the relief of the white people from their depredations, and from
the demoralizing influences accompanying the presence of savages in civilized
communities, and also for the best interests of the Indians themselves. To give
them a partial supply of clothing and a small amount of food annually, while
they yet remain among the settlements, is to encourage them in idleness, and
directly tends to establish them as a class of wandering beggars.14
EUROAMERICAN AND NATIVE AMERICAN RELATIONSHIPS IN SNAKE AND SPRING
VALLEYS
The arrival of the first white settlers in Snake and Spring valleys during the late 1860s
ushered in an entirely new way of life for the local Indians. Lands that had been used
formerly for hunting and gathering purposes were appropriated and converted for agricultural
and mining use. Grass seeds that had been used for food were eaten by range cattle, wild
game that had served as a source of meat began to diminish in the face of hunting by
settlers and miners, pinyon pine trees were cut down to construct buildings, fences, and
mining structures and to serve as fuel for domestic and mining purposes, choice stream-
side locations were cultivated, and springs and streams were used for stock watering
places, irrigation, and sluicing operations. In turn, the Indians were often compelled to work
for the ranchers and miners in order to survive. Men were employed as herders,
farmhands, and laborers in mining camps such as Osceola, and women were hired to
perform domestic chores. This use of Indian labor in Nevada mining camps was described
by Ross Browne in his Resources of the Pacific Slope (1869):
Many of the Nevada Indians residing in the vicinity of mining camps and the
larger settlements are beginning to be employed by the whites. . . . The men
find employment wheeling and shovelling dirt, chopping wood, carrying water,
etc.; the younger and more intelligent squaws making fair wages at washing,
13. Quoted in Charles C. Colley, "The Struggle of Nevada Indians to Hold Their Lands, 1847-1870," Indian
Historian, VI (Summer 1973), 8.
14. John Wesley Powell and George W. Ingalls, On the Conditions of the Ute Indians of Utah; The Paiutes
of Utah, Northern Arizona, Southern Nevada, and Southeastern California; The Western Shoshones of Idaho and
Utah; and the Western Shoshones of Nevada; and Report Concerning Claims of Settlers in the Mo-a-pa Valley,
Southeastern Nevada (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1874), p. 431. During the late 1870s various
scholarly studies of the Indian tribes in the Great Basin were conducted. See, for instance, Hubert Howe Bancroft,
The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America, Vol. I, Wild Tribes (New York, D. Appleton and Company,
1875), pp. 422-42, 460-70, and Albert G. Brackett, "The Shoshones, or Snake Indians, Their Religion, Superstitions,
and Manners," in Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Showing the Operations,
Expenditures, and Condition of the Institution For the Year 1879 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1880),
pp. 328-33.
225
while both sexes engage in packing in fuel on their backs. ... As a prospector
the Indian is very expert, the miners often securing his aid when going out on
a tour of exploration; some of the most valuable mineral discoveries in
southeastern Nevada having been made by Indians in the service of whites.
They are also adroit sorters of ore [and] some of them are employed by the
millmen for that purpose.15
Area newspapers described the Indians in Spring and Snake Valleys in generally
condescending terms as the mining rushes spread throughout eastern Nevada. On April 13,
1869, the White Pine Daily News described the Indians in Snake Valley as being
peaceable, and even friendly, and express a desire to have the Gentiles settle
among them in order to keep the Mormons out. Since the discovery of the
mines, Mormon farmers have begun to settle in Snake Valley, and the Indians
wish to get agricultural implements from the "Mericats," so that they can till the
rich soil of the valley themselves. The noble reds consist of fag-ends of the
Goshute, Snake and Piute tribes, and are quite active, honest and industrious.16
The following month on May 8 the same newspaper published a more denigrating article
on the Indians in Snake Valley:
Ducks, curlew, sage hens and rabbits swarm in the neighborhood, and the
Indians are as meek as lambs - having participated in the little difficulty with
Gen. Connor and his men, they are not at all disposed to hanker after any
more of the "chicken pie."17
Later on June 21 the newspaper commented on Indians in Spring Valley:
Spring Valley . . . affords fine hunting, where two or three dozen teel and
mallard ducks and curlew may be bagged in a few hours. The Indians sell duck
eggs at fifty cents per hundred.18
In September 1875 tensions between whites and the Gosiute Indians increased in eastern
Nevada. Two Indians were hired to show A.J. Leathers and James Tollard a mine for the
sum of $50. The whites refused to pay when the mine proved of no value, and Tollard was
killed by the aggrieved natives. Leathers escaped to Abner C. Cleveland's ranch in Spring
Valley, where two apparently innocent Indians were murdered. A war scare was
precipitated, and the Gosiutes began assembling in considerable numbers. As the panic
grew, volunteer troops were raised in Eureka, Pioche, and surrounding areas and sent to
Spring Valley under the command of Major John H. Dennis with orders from Governor L.R.
Bradley to seize horses and necessary supplies for the troops. In the face of this force the
Indians indicated they had no intention of battling with the whites but had rather assembled
in the area for their traditional nut gathering activities. When it was learned that a Gosiute
named To-ba or Tobe had killed Tollard, he was demanded of the tribe, delivered by the
15. Ross Browne, Resources of the Pacific Slope (New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1869), p. 189.
16. White Pine Daily News, April 13, 1869.
17. White Pine Daily News, May 8, 1869.
18. White Pine Daily News, June 21, 1869.
226
Indians to the soldiers, and quickly hung by the whites. Since no whites were brought to
trial for the Cleveland Ranch murders, tensions continued to increase.19
In an effort to forestall further violence a council between the Gosiutes and whites of Snake
Valley was held at the home of Ben Lehman near present-day Baker.20 The following
eyewitness account of the council portrays the grievances of the Indians ranging from
dwindling food supplies to inadequate and undependable pay for work on Snake Valley
ranches and fears of continuing white exploitation:
At about 4 p.m. I [Levi Sheen] went to Mr. Lehman's house. Gunista and some
of his Indians came with me. Some white people were present. Nearly all the
inhabitants of Snake Valley have congregated at Lehman's. The whites were
anxious to learn of the Indians what was the cause of the trouble. (An
interesting interview then took place between the whites and Indians which was
interpreted by me.) On being asked what was the cause of trouble, Gunista
replied: "That he knew no other than that a bad Indian had killed a white man;
did not know the cause of the killing." - The following questions were then
asked and answered. Question - Why did all the Indians flee to the mountains
at about the same time? Ans- "For the past four years there have been no
pine nuts in this country. This year there is a great plenty and as has been the
custom in former years when the pine nuts were ripe, word was sent to all the
Indians to gather in parties in the mountains and have their dance and Pine Nut
Feast." Question- Why did the Indians, who had so long worked for the
Ranchers, refuse to work any more, some leaving without the money due them?
Ans. - "The Indians have worked very hard for the Ranchers for the past three
or four years for very small wages. Some of the Ranchers paid them promptly,
but others were slow, and in some cases the Indians were compelled to wait
for several months for their pay, and those who went away without their money
due them, did not consider that they were losing it, but would get it on their
return. The Indians, heretofore, have been compelled to work for the whites in
order to make a living. There being but little game and no pine nuts, this year
there is some game, and an abundance of pine nuts. The Indians were tired of
working and all went to the mountains to have a general good time." Ques. -
Why, within the last two or three months did the Indians tell the Ranchers that
the soldiers were coming to kill all the Indians, and that trouble was expected?
(Here several of the Indians took part in answering the question referred to.)
Ans. - "It has been talked among the Indians that if they did not go and be
baptized (washed as they term it) by the Mormon people that the soldiers would
kill them all." I then turned to Gunista (as per request) and asked him several
questions. He (Gunista) stated, "That he had been washed and that no white
man had told him that the soldiers would kill the Indians, etc., but that he had
heard the other Indians say that the matter had been talked of at the washing
places." On being asked if his Indians intended to kill the whites, destroy
property etc., he replied; "That they did not intend to do anything wrong to the
whites, but that some of the young Indians were saucy and would not obey him,
and that Tobe (who killed Toland) did not belong to his band; that he was a
renegade, and did not belong to any band and that Tobe had caused the whole
trouble, and that he was anxious that he (Tobe) might be captured and
punished." (Several of the citizens of Spring and Snake Vallies have since told
19. Angel, History of Nevada, pp. 183-84.
20. According to Read in her White Pine Lang Syne, p. 130, residents in the vicinity of present-day Baker
had built a small fort surrounded by a moat for protection against attack during the war scare.
227
me that the Indians have acted and talked very strange within the past few
months, and appeared to be greatly excited over the washing business, and that
they (the citizens) believed, that if an Indian outbreak was imminent that the
Mormon people were to blame for it).21
That same year a census was taken for the State of Nevada. Statistics compiled during the
census indicated that 1,525 Indians lived in White Pine County. The census, which
classified the entire Indian population as hunters and laborers, provided a breakdown of this
total by geographical vicinity:
100 Shoshones - Ruby Valley
90 Shoshones - Diamond and Huntington Valleys
75 Shoshones - Newark Valley
50 Shoshones - Bull Creek and vicinity
250 Shoshones - Hamilton and vicinity
140 Shoshones - White River and vicinity
90 Shoshones - Robinson and vicinity
45 Shoshones - Duck Creek and vicinity
70 Shoshones - Egan and Butte Valleys
80 Shoshones - Cherry Creek and vicinity
340 Gos-Utes - Spring and Lake Valleys
150 Gos-Utes - Kern, Deep Creek, etc.
45 Gos-Utes and Shoshones - Ward and Cave Valleys22
Although the census did not mention Snake Valley, George M. Wheeler, while surveying
the area in 1869, noted that he encountered some 200 Indians in the valley. He observed:
Emerging from the pass, near Sacramento District, Snake Valley is entered,
and here are encountered some of the Snake Indians, who are in the habit of
occupying the valley in planting and harvesting season, raising scanty crops,
which they cache for the winter use, and then retire to the mountains.
Altogether, we have found some two hundred of these Indians, whose chief,
Blackhawk, is a shrewd and calculating Indian, undoubtedly of a character
superior to the average. These Indians had never received annuities from any
source, and had always, according to their own story, been peaceable and
friendly to the whites.
Wheeler commented that these Indians "professed to be Snakes or Shoshones" and wished
"to receive agricultural implements."23
A map prepared by Wheeler's surveyors shows the location of four Indian "rancherias" in
Snake and Spring valleys in 1869. "Rancherias" were small settlements of Indians on the
outskirts of towns or on ranches where they were employed. Two "rancherias" in Spring
Valley were along the wagon road on the west side of the Snake Range between
Shoshone and the Sacramento Mining District, whose boundaries were generally north and
west of Sacramento Pass. In Snake Valley one "rancheria" was located near present-day
21. Quoted in Forbes, Nevada Indians Speak, pp. 123-24.
22. Census of the Inhabitants of the State of Nevada, 1875, p. 822, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and
Assembly, State of Nevada, Vol. 2, 8th Session.
23. Preliminary Report Upon a Reconnaissance Through Southern and Southeastern Nevada, Made In 1869,
pp. 11, 36.
228
Garrison just southeast of Snake Creek, and the other was near a wagon road just south
of the Absalom Lehman Ranch along Lehman Creek.24
By 1880 the Indian population in White Pine County had declined and the economic well-
being of the Native Americans had worsened. In his History of Nevada in 1881 Angel
observed:
The Indians of this county are of the Shoshone and Gosh-Ute tribes - about
seven Shoshones to every three of the other tribe - and belong to the Duck
Valley Reservation. The Indians of White Pine County, however, have never
been on a reservation, and have received very little aid from the Government
since 1872. The census report places their number at 810, but it is known that
many of them were not found by the census agents, and their actual number
is probably not less than 1 ,200. The Shoshones occupy the western part of the
county, and the Gosh-Utes the eastern part. Before any white settlements were
commenced, the Pah-Utes subjugated the Shoshones, and regularly collected
tribute from them, and only permitted them to keep a certain small number of
ponies to each band, and if, at any time the number was exceeded, the extra
ponies were seized by the Pah-Utes. In this manner the young Shoshones were
kept dismounted and at a disadvantage. Attractive Shoshone maidens were also
borne away by force to Pah-Ute lodges. The Gosh-Utes took a prominent part
in the overland stage troubles of 1863, but have been perfectly quiet since the
scare of 1875. A few of them are engaged in farming, and own teams, wagons
and implements, but the majority strictly follow the scriptural injunction to take
no thought of the morrow. Most of the heavy household drudgery of the white
settlements is done by squaws, who work at cheap rates and make docile and
industrious domestics.25
By the 1890s the remaining principal centers of Indian settlement in the vicinity of present-
day Great Basin National Park were those near Garrison, Baker, and Osceola. Because of
their worsening condition the remaining Indians were forced to live in small settlements on
the outskirts of towns or to attach themselves to family units on area ranches, often
adopting the name of the rancher of which they worked. One such settlement, which was
popularly known as the Garrison Indian Camp, was located one-half mile south of Garrison.
This camp consisted of some ten wickiups and several log cabins. After fire destroyed part
of the camp, the Indians moved northward to Baker and settled a short distance west of
the present-day Baker Indian Cemetery. By 1914 Joe and Mamie Joseph were the only
Indian family left in Baker, and a typhoid outbreak soon took Joe, Mamie, and three of their
children.26
Around the turn of the century an Indian camp was located some fifty yards from the main
street of Osceola. There was considerable animosity between the white miners and the
Indians as evidenced by a petition sent by the white residents of the town to the White
Pine County Board of Commissioners in 1899. The petition requested that the camp be
removed because it was disturbing community life. The petition noted:
24. Map Showing Detailed Topography of the Country Traversed by the Reconnaissance Expedition Through
Southern & Southeastern Nevada in Charge of Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, U.S. Engineers, Assisted by Lieut. O.W.
Lockwood, Corps of Engineers USA, 1869. P.W. Hamel, Chief Topographer and Draughtsman. (Copy of map on
file in Special Collections Division, Marriott Library, University of Utah, Salt Lake City).
25. Angel, History of Nevada, p. 649.
26. Baker, "Early History of Snake Valley," n.p., and Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National Park," Part II,
pp. 488-90.
229
The Indians who reside in this camp frequently disturb the peace and quietness
of the neighborhood by getting drunk, discharging firearms, and using vile and
abusive language. The condition is such that it is unsafe for a woman to be left
alone at night in her own house, and cases are not unknown where an Indian
has entered a dwelling house in the night without knocking and giving warning
of his coming.27
While documentation concerning any official action by the board could not be found, it can
be assumed that the Indians in the camp drifted off in search of other employment, died
as the result of various epidemics, or moved to various Indian reservations in Nevada and
Utah.
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the Indian population in White Pine
County declined steadily. The 1890, 1900, and 1910 census statistics listed 238, 207, and
199, respectively. The declining numbers can be attributed to disease, such as smallpox,
influenza, and typhoid epidemics, and to the movement of many Indians to towns such as
Ely and Las Vegas, in search of employment or reservations in Nevada and Utah.28 The
principal reservations to which White Pine County Indians moved included: (1) Shoshone-
Duckwater Reservation in Nye County; (2) Paiute-Shivwits Reservation west of St. George,
Utah; (3) Indian Peak Reservation in the Needle Range to the south; and (4) Gosiute
Reservation in Deep Creek Valley, some sixty miles north of Baker.29
27. Quoted in Read, White Pine Lang Syne, p. 158.
28. Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, Statistics for Nevada, p. 580, and Baker,
"Early History of Snake Valley," n.p.
29. Omer C. Stewart, "The Western Shoshone of Nevada and the U.S. Government, 1863-1950," in Selected
Papers from the 14th Great Basin Anthropological Conference (Socorro, New Mexico, Ballena Press, 1978), and
Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National Park," Part II, pp. 488-90.
230
CHAPTER TEN
ADMINISTRATION OF THE SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE
BY THE U.S. FOREST SERVICE: 1909-1986
INTRODUCTION
Nevada National Forest was established by President William Howard Taft on February 1 0,
1909. Much of present-day Great Basin National Park was within the forest's original
boundaries. The remainder of the present park, including the Lehman Caves area, was
incorporated in the forest when its boundaries were enlarged and adjusted by presidential
proclamation on October 28, 1912. Thus, the present park area was administered by the
U.S. Forest Service until establishment of the national park on October 27, 1986.
ESTABLISHMENT OF NATIONAL FORESTS AND U.S. FOREST SERVICE
During the mid-nineteenth century a movement for the preservation of the nation's natural
resources was commenced in the United States. By 1 864 three scientific thinkers - Henry
David Thoreau, the Massachusetts naturalist-poet-philosopher; George Perkins Marsh, a
Vermont lawyer and scholar; and Frederick Law Olmstead, superintendent of the Central
Park project in New York City - had articulated the need for conservation and the
preservation of our country's natural resources from exploitation by business and settlement.
Their writings were the foundation upon which all subsequent conservation proponents built
their arguments. Olmstead, in particular, advocated the concept of great "public parks" and
was responsible for launching a movement to preserve the giant sequoias in Yosemite
Valley from commercial exploitation. As a result of pressure exerted on Congress a law
was passed in 1 864 that granted Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of Big Trees to
the State of California as a state park. This was the first time that any government had
set aside public lands purely for the preservation of scenic values.1
The "public park" concept involving preservation of important natural features and their
management for the benefit of the people circulated throughout the East and Midwest from
the mid-1 860s onward. As a result of the Washburn-Langford-Doane expedition in 1870
and another expedition led by U.S. Geologist Ferdinand V. Hayden the following year,
pressure mounted that Yellowstone should be preserved. On March 1, 1872, President
Ulysses S. Grant signed the Yellowstone Park bill into law, thus establishing our first
national park by virtue of the fact that it was located in Wyoming Territory and hence under
the immediate administration of the federal government. A precedent had been established
to reserve and withdraw areas from settlement and set them apart as public parks for the
benefit and enjoyment of the people. The Yellowstone Park Act empowered the Secretary
of the Interior to protect fish and game from wanton destruction and provide for the
preservation and retention in their natural condition of timber, mineral deposits, natural
curiosities, and scenic wonders within the park.2
Meanwhile, wholesale devastation of timber reserves in the West continued. In 1876 the
position of forestry agent in the U.S. Department of Agriculture was established to study
the twin problems of timber consumption and preservation of forest lands. Other federal
1. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings,
Theme XIX, Conservation of Natural Resources, 1 963, pp. 2-1 9.
2. Ibid, pp. 22-23, and Horace M. Albright and Frank J. Taylor, "Oh, Rangerl": A Book About the National
Parks (Reprint ed., Golden, Colorado, Outbooks, 1980), p. 121.
231
efforts that contributed toward awakening public interest in the diversified natural resources
of the West were Hayden's Geological and Geographical Surveys of the Territories of the
United States, John Wesley Powell's United States Geographical and Geological Survey of
the Rocky Mountain Region, and Lieutenant George M. Wheeler's Geographical Surveys
West of the One Hundredth Meridian. In 1879 these three groups were incorporated into
the United States Geological Survey and placed under the Department of the Interior with
authorization to conduct all scientific surveys performed by the federal government.3
During the 1870s and 1880s a group of intellectuals, including scientists, naturalists,
landscape architects, foresters, geologists, and editors of national periodicals, refined the
basic concepts of conservation. Through their writings and leadership they made progress
in reversing the traditional American attitude toward the utilization of natural resources.
One of the most articulate and widely read spokesman for conservation was John Muir, a
well-educated Scotsman who campaigned for the preservation of the wilderness and federal
control of the forests in the West. His chief concerns were the waste and destruction of
forests by lumbermen, cattle grazing, and sheepherding.4
As a result of Muir's campaigning, three national parks - Yosemite, Sequoia, and General
Grant - were established to preserve the Sierra forests from timbering excesses and
overgrazing. The establishing legislation for these parks passed Congress with little debate,
primarily as a result of the fact that "scenic nationalism" and "monumentalism" were not in
conflict with "materialism" in these areas by 1890.5
During the 1870s and 1880s conservationists in the United States focused considerable
energy on a movement to repeal the Timber Culture Act of 1873 and the Timber Cutting
Act of 1878. At the forefront of this movement were conservationists interested in forestry
such as Charles S. Sargent, John Muir, and Robert V. Johnson, aided by the General Land
Office of the U.S. Department of the Interior and foresters in the U.S. Department of
Agriculture. Considerable fraud was associated with these laws, and as a result much
valuable timber land was lost as it fell into the hands of large corporations and timber
speculators. The two acts were ostensibly intended to provide for forest conservation. The
Timber Culture Act of 1873 authorized any person who kept forty acres of timber land in
good condition to acquire title to 160 acres. The minimum tree-growing requirement was
reduced to ten acres in 1878. The Timber Cutting Act of 1878, on the other hand, allowed
bona fide settlers and miners to cut timber on the public domain free of charge for their
own use.6
In 1890 a committee of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, with
Thomas C. Mendenhall, Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, as
chairman, presented President Benjamin Harrison with a petition recommending that a
commission be established to "investigate the necessity of preserving certain parts of the
present public forest as requisite for the maintenance of favorable water conditions." The
petition further urged that "pending such investigation all timber lands of the United States
be withdrawn from sale and provision be made to protect the said lands from theft and
3. Theme XIX, Conservation of Natural Resources, pp. 29, 35-37.
4. Ibid, pp. 9, 32-34.
5. Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 1979),
p. 65.
6. Richard B. Morris, ed., Encyclopedia of American History: Bicentennial Edition (New York, Harper & Row,
Publishers, 1976), p. 637, and Theme XIX, Conservation of Natural Resources, pp. 73-74.
232
ravages by fire, and to supply in a rational manner the local needs of wood and lumber
until a permanent system of forest administration be had."7
President Harrison and Secretary of the Interior John W. Noble endorsed the proposals.
Provisions of the bill to accomplish these ends were drafted by Edward A. Bowers, a
special agent and inspector in the General Land Office, with the advice of John Muir and
Robert V. Johnson. Bowers' bill was attached as a "rider" to the Sundry Civil
Appropriations Bill and passed by Congress without debate.8
The Forest Reserve Act (26 Stat. 1095), signed into law by President Harrison on March
3, 1891, repealed the Timber Culture Act of 1873 and the Timber Cutting Act of 1878.
Section 24 further provided:
That the President of the United States may, from time to time, set apart and
reserve, in any state or territory having public land bearing forests, in any part
of the public lands, wholly or in part covered with timber or undergrowth,
whether of commercial value or not, as public reservations, and the President
shall, by public proclamation, declare the establishment of such reservations,
and the limits thereof.
The forest reservations were to be administered by the Department of the Interior.9
While the law did not define the objectives for setting aside the forest reservations the
ostensible purposes, according to the House Committee on Public Lands, were the
protection of "forest growth against destruction by fire and ax and preservation of forest
conditions upon which water conditions and water flow" were dependent. The new policy
was based on the perception "that a forest-cover on slopes and mountains must be
maintained to regulate the flow of streams, to prevent erosion, and thereby to maintain
favorable conditions in the plains below." The policy of reserving forest land was thus
"confined mainly to those localities in which agriculturists" were "dependent upon irrigation."
The overriding goal of the reserve policy was "to maintain favorable forest conditions,
without, however, excluding the use of these reservations for other purposes."10
During the next decade the Department of the Interior refined its policies concerning the
objectives and regulations governing the forest reserves. Administration of the reserves
was assigned to the Forestry Division of the General Land Office. Regulations for
managing the reserves were adopted on June 30, 1897, and amended on March 21, 1898.
By 1902 the department had developed the objectives for national forest reserves into a
formal policy statement:
7. Quoted in Charles R. Van Hise and Loomis Havenmeyer, eds., Conservation of Our Natural Resources
(New York, The Macmillan Company, 1933), p. 242, and Benjamin H. Hibbard, A History of Public Land Policies
(New York, The Macmillan Company, 1924), p. 530.
8. Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement,
1890-1920 (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1959), p. 36.
9. 26 Stat. 1095.
10. Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, 1895, I, CIV-CV, and American Forestry Association, "The
Forest Reservation Policy," ca. 1897.
233
The object of setting land aside for forest reserves is
1 . To protect a growth of timber of land which is not fit to grow other crops
and under conditions where no such protection is assured or can be
supplied by private persons or local authorities.
2. To keep a growth of vegetation, especially of timber on mountain lands
which would otherwise wash and gully.
Forest reserves have been and are created from lands (nearly all mountain
lands) unfit for agriculture for reasons of altitude and consequent climate usually
reinforced by poverty or insufficiency of soil. These lands generally bear a
stand of timber or indicate that they have borne such and are likely to be
restocked with forests if protected. Where these mountain forests have not
been reserved and have passed into private ownership their history has
generally been that of the Northern pineries and other forest areas. They are
culled over for whatever will pay the expense of exploitation, the cutting is
careless and wasteful, the profits of the timberman small and to the district
much smaller. Since this work of denudation is a temporary matter it does
little for the permanent improvement of the locality, but leaves behind it the
characteristic ruins of abandoned sawmills and the devastated, fire-scorched
mountain lands robbed of their forest and fertility alike and doomed for years,
in many cases for centuries, to remain as unsightly, barren wastes where the
much-needed waters gather unhindered to rush from the mountains and be
wasted. To avoid this permanent injury to districts where every drop of water
is precious, and where the protective function of the mountain forests, therefore,
is of the greatest importance, is the first object of the creation of forest reserves.
To husband an immense wealth of timber, to regulate its use, to utilize only the
growth of these mountain forests and thereby insure a continued supply of one
of the most important materials, is the second object of the reserve policy.11
Thus, the Forest Reserve Act and the implementation of its provisions became the
cornerstones of early national conservation policy. The act would later be characterized
as "the most important legislation in the history of Forestry in America" by Gifford Pinchot,
a long-time progressive and conservationist who became the first Chief Forester of the U.S.
Forest Service. Benjamin H. Hibbard, a noted public lands historian, has commented on
the effect of the act in establishing a precedent that all of the public domain was not to be
disposed of by private interests:
Without question the act permitting the withdrawal of public [forest] land from
private entry was the most signal act yet performed by Congress in the direction
of a national land policy.13
In 1905 administration of the national forest reserves was transferred from the General
Land Office of the Department of the Interior to the newly-established U.S. Forest Service
in the Department of Agriculture. Under the energetic leadership of Chief Forester Gifford
Pinchot the Forest Service became active in the crusade to conserve our nation's natural
resources. As part of its conservation ethic, the new bureau favored a policy of multiple-
11. Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, 1902, I, 19-20.
12. Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground (New York, Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1947), p. 85.
13. Hibbard, History of Public Land Policies, p. 532.
234
purpose resource utilization under which the land and its resources would serve a variety
of regulated economic functions.14
The earliest regulations and instructions for the administration of the national forest reserves
under the new bureau were based upon general policies laid down in a letter Pinchot wrote
for the signature of Secretary of Agriculture James Wilson outlining his duties as Chief
Forester. The policies supported resource use within a utilitarian conservation framework
rather than preservation of the forest as game reserves or public playgrounds. The letter,
dated February 1, 1905, read in part:
In the administration of the forest reserves it must be clearly borne in mind that
all land is to be devoted to its most productive use for the permanent good of
the whole people, and not for the temporary benefit of individuals or companies.
All the resources of forest reserves are for use, and this use must be brought
about in a thoroughly prompt and business-like manner, under such restrictions
only as will insure the permanence of these resources. The vital importance of
forest reserves to the great industries of the Western States will be largely
increased in the near future by the continued steady advance in settlement and
development. The permanence of the resources of the reserves is therefore
indispensable to continued prosperity, and the policy of this Department for their
protection and use will invariably be guided by this fact, always bearing in mind
that the conservative use of these resources in no way conflicts with their
permanent value.
You will see to it that the water, wood, and forage of the reserves are
conserved and wisely used for the benefit of the home builder first of all, upon
whom depends the best permanent use of lands and resources alike. The
continued prosperity of the agricultural, lumbering, mining and livestock interests
is directly dependent upon a permanent and accessible supply of water, wood,
and forage, as well as upon the present and future use of these resources
under businesslike regulations, enforced with promptness, effectiveness, and
common sense. In the management of each reserve local questions will be
decided upon local grounds; the dominant industry will be considered first, but
with as little restriction to minor industries as may be possible; sudden changes
in industrial conditions will be avoided by gradual adjustment after due notice,
and where conflicting interests must be reconciled the question will always be
decided from the standpoint of the greatest good of the greatest number in the
long run.15
On June 14, 1905, Secretary Wilson approved Pinchot's manuscript for a set of regulations
and instructions to govern the national forest reserves. The manuscript was published in
a small pocket volume entitled The Use of the National Forest Reserves and placed in the
hands of all field men on July 1 when its contents went into effect. The volume, soon
renamed the Use Book, stated succinctly the spirit and purpose of the national forest
reserves:
14. Richard Polenberg, "The Great Conservation Contest," Forest History, January 1967, 13-14. For further
data on the history of the U.S. Forest Service and the development of its policies, see Samuel Trask Dana and
Sally K. Fairfax, Forest and Range Policy: Its Development in the United States (2d ed., New York, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, 1980); Glen O. Robinson, The Forest Service: A Study in Public Land Management (Baltimore,
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975); and Harold K. Steen, The U.S. Forest Service: A History (Seattle, University
of Washington Press, 1976).
15. Preliminary Draft, Chapter VIII - History of Forest Service Policy and Past and Present Administrative
Procedure on National Forest Range Lands in Northeastern Nevada," [ca. 1937], Historical Files, USFS, Elko.
235
The timber, water, pasture, mineral, and other resources of the forest reserves
are for the use of the people. They may be obtained under reasonable
conditions, without delay. Legitimate improvements and business enterprises will
be encouraged.
Forest reserves are open to all persons for all purposes.
Persons who wish to make any use of the resources of a forest reserve for
which a permit is required should consult the nearest forest officer. . . .
The Use Book went on to state that forest reserves
are for the purpose of preserving a perpetual supply of timber for home
industries, preventing destruction of the forest cover which regulates the flow of
streams, and protecting local residents from unfair competition in the use of
forest and range. They are patrolled and protected at Government expense, for
the benefit of the community and the home.
The administration of forest reserves is not for the benefit of the Government,
but of the people. The revenue derived from them goes, not into the general
fund of the United States, but toward maintaining upon the reserves a force of
men organized to serve the public interests. This force has three chief duties:
To protect the reserves against fire, to assist the people in their use, and to see
that they are properly used.16
The Forest Service centralized responsibility for administration of the national forests
(national forest reserves were redesignated national forests in 1907) in Washington, D.C.,
until 1908. In that year, the Forest Service created six administrative regions (then called
districts), each supervised by a regional (district) forester to whom the Washington Office
delegated substantial authority. Regional foresters were authorized to exercise
administrative discretion over a wide range of functions. Over time, their authority was
extended, and thus they came to amass considerable autonomy in making decisions for the
forests under their administration.
The 1908 reorganization created the Intermountain Region (District) or Region 4, with
headquarters at Ogden, Utah. This region covered national forest lands in Idaho south of
the Salmon River, Wyoming west of the Continental Divide, Utah, Nevada, a small portion
of western Colorado, and Arizona north of the Grand Canyon. Although the configuration
of the region has changed somewhat in the period since its creation, the general outlines
have remained to date.
U.S. FOREST SERVICE SURVEYS IN CENTRAL EASTERN NEVADA AND
ESTABLISHMENT OF NEVADA NATIONAL FOREST
After the establishment of the U.S. Forest Service in 1905 Pinchot became interested in the
forest resources in central eastern Nevada as well as other parts of the West. Protection
of the remaining timber supply from fire and private exploitation, conservation of the
16. Quoted in Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, pp. 264-67.
17. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, The Rise of Multiple-Use Management in the Intermountain
West: A History of Region 4 of the Forest Service, by Thomas G. Alexander, May 1987, p. 1. This study is the
most definitive work of its kind on the history of the U.S. Forest Service's Region 4.
236
watersheds for agricultural irrigation, and efficient, regulated administration of grazing for
range replenishment and preservation were key elements of Pinchot's interest in the area.18
During 1906 the Forest Service conducted an examination of central eastern Nevada in
order to develop proposals for new national forest reserves. The surveys, under the
direction of Forest Expert L. Von Wernstedt, covered "a strip of country 50 to 60 miles wide
along the Utah State line in eastern Nevada, between the Lincoln County line and the
Central Pacific R.R." As a result of these surveys, Wernstedt recommended that four
national forests be established: Ely, Steptoe, Osceola, and Snake.
The surveys conducted by Wernstedt for the proposed Snake and Osceola national forests
are pertinent to this study because the area they encompassed included portions of
present-day Great Basin National Park. In his report Wernstedt made some general
observations about the area comprising these two proposed national forests, followed by
specific discussions of forestry, lumbering, fire, settlements, and ranching issues. Regarding
the geographical features of the Snake Range, he noted:
The Snake Range is the most conspicuous range of mountains between the
Wasatch Mountains and the Sierras, its highest peak Wheeler Peak, or Jeff
Davis, attaining an elevation variously given as 12,000 to 13,000 feet or some
7,000 feet above the valley. It extends from the Lincoln County line for about
60 miles north and is divided by the Osceola pass in two mountain ranges, the
northerly one called Mt. Moraja with an elevation of about 11,000 feet. . . .
The Snake Range proper is very rough while that part of Mt. Moraja that lies
north of the main peak is lower and with shallower and longer features of relief.
The mountain is a quartzite formation resting upon a granite bed and overlaid
by limestone but this order, on account of crossfolding, is sometimes reversed.
The west side of the main Snake range is steeper than the east side and that
part of the mountains that face Spring Valley east of Shoshone is exceedingly
steep and full of precipitous ledges. . . . Several small streams head on both
sides of the mountain, most of them on the east side. These are all used for
irrigation, or for mining purposes at the Osceola placer mines. There are about
a dozen small streams varying in size from about 1-1/2 second feet to 5 second
feet. The main flow is from April to June. After July there is a falling off on
the flow but most of the larger streams are live all the year.
Wernstedt stated that the Snake Range was "probably better timbered than any other
mountains in Nevada with the exception of the Charleston Mountains and possibly the
Nevada portion of the Sierras." He elaborated further:
The timbered area however does not exceed 75,000 acres and the timber is
quite inaccessible, the bulk being located at high elevations on the east side
of the summit. The forest begins at about 7,800 feet and the timber line is
reached at about 10,500 feet. The forest consists of yellow pine, balsam,
Douglas fir, hickory pine, Rocky Mountain white pine, and spruce; balsam and
yellow pine occupies the low elevations, spruce the higher country and
preferably north exposures. The hickory, pine, and white pine range from near
the lower limit to the timber line and occupy preferably east and south
exposures. The bulk of the forest is spruce; the amount of yellow pine is small.
Douglas fir is scattering.
18. Eunice Miller, "The Timber Resources of Nevada" (Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Nevada, Reno,
1924), pp. 67-68.
237
Range of yellow pine
7,900 - 8,500, best 8,000
" " balsam
7,300 - 9,500, most at 8,000, most common
tree below 8,600
■ " Douglas fir
8,000 - 9,000
" " hickory pine
8,300 - 10,500, best 9,000
" " spruce
8,500 - 10,000, best 9,000
" " white pine
8,300 - 10,500, best 9,000
Yellow pine, diameter 9 inches to 30 inches, generally less than 24 inches,
height 70 feet, timber in bunches, where good 1 00 ,to 1 20 trees per acre over
small areas of a few acres only. Spruce also in bodies sometimes very dense,
100 to 150 trees per acre, diameter 8 inches to 30 inches, generally 14 inches,
height 50 to 90 feet, perfectly straight and clean but often with spiral grain.
Douglas fir, 24 inches to 36 inches, height 70 to 100 feet, young growth, much
at the lower elevations, straight development. Hickory pine and white pine, 10
to 20 inches diameter, generally scrubby, hickory pine better. Balsam some 36
inches generally 15 inches, and 30 to 40 feet tall. Approaching the tree limit
the trees all become small and stunted. Probably spruce occupies 50 percent
of the timbered area, balsam 25 per cent, hickory pine and white pine 15 per
cent, and yellow pine 5 per cent and only in certain localities.
According to Wernstedt, lumbering had been conducted in the Snake Mountains since the
1860s. The timber had been used primarily "for building up the various mining camps,
Ward, Ely, and Osceola." In earlier days sawmills had been operating "on Williams Creek
on the west side, and on the Strawberry, Snake, and Lexington creeks on the east side of
the Snake range proper." On Mount Moriah there had been mills "in two of the canyons
on the south and east side, Williams Canyon on the south and Henry Canyon." At the
present time the three sawmills on Strawberry, Snake, and Lexington creeks were
operating. The Mount Moriah mills were closed, because the timber on the mountain was
less accessible. At the time of examination the three mills were cutting lumber for the
mines at Ely and for a new mine in the Mount Moriah area.
Wernstedt estimated that from 10,000,000 to 15,000,000 board feet of lumber had been cut
from the Snake Range. All of the mills were small, "sawing 6,000 to 10,000 feet a day
when running." The lumber cut had been "mainly yellow pine, Douglas fir, and some
balsam." The cuttings had been confined to the lower elevations, and no spruce had been
touched. No "bodies of yellow pine of any importance" existed "outside of the canyons
where the mills" were located, and most of it had been cut. Thus, the amount of yellow
pine left was small, "probably for the whole range not over 4 million feet besides young
growth and trees less than six inches in diameter."
The amount of timber on the Snake Range, according to Wernstedt, could not "be given
except very roughly." He stated:
About 65,000 acres are timbered, half of it being dense timber. Counting in
everything, saw timber and prop timber, the heavy areas as mapped at least
average 2,000 feet per acre while they sometimes run 8,000 feet per acre. This
would indicate that there is, at the least calculation, 75 million feet on the Snake
range and 10 million on Mt. Moraja. How much of this timber that is
commercial will depend not only on the location but, in the main, on the need
for lumber in the locality.
Several small areas of timber had been burned by forest fires, "principally in the thick
spruce."
238
The agricultural, ranching, and mining interests in the area were, according to Wernstedt,
relatively small-scale. He observed:
Osceola is a small, mining town, but it has had its period and only a few men
are now kept working at its placer mines. Lively prospecting is going on all
over. Two prospects had recently been bonded for $25,000 and $50,000
respectively at the time of the examination and about 60,000 feet of lumber had
been contracted for. There are 25 ranches, most of them in Snake Valley, that
depend on the water from the Snake range. These ranches have an
approximate area of 7,000 to 8,000 acres of which 2,500 acres are in grain or
alfalfa, and the balance is irrigated pasture. Potatoes, wheat, oats, alfalfa,
barley, wild hay are raised, and in Snake Valley, fruit, peaches, pears, prunes,
plums, grapes, etc. Improved farm land is valued at $25 an acre.
The number of cattle and sheep owned by these ranches and depending on the
Snake range is approximately 22,000 sheep owned by 8 men, and 3,300 cattle;
most of the sheep are run on Mt. Moraja. It does not seem probable that
farming will ever be carried on to a much greater extent in the future than at
the present as all depend on the limited water supply which could not be
materially increased or the flow greatly retarded, and the growing season is
short for possible dry farming development. There is some complaint about the
effect of the lumbering operations and the sheep in relation to the stream flow,
and the range here as elsewhere is over-stocked. It is not believed that the
lumbering up to the present has injured the supply but evidently the forests on
the Snake range are acting effectively as a protection to the water supply and
if cut a great change would be noticeable. The creeks have a greater volume
before they emerge from the mountains than at the place where they are used.
Fluming would increase the acreage some. There are pipe lines conveying
water from the canyon immediately north of Wheeler Peak to Osceola on the
east side and also pipe lines from the canyon five miles north of Shoshone to
Osceola on the west side, both for the Osceola placers. There are no good
reservoir sites in these mountains and a great deal of water in the early spring
goes to waste. The cattle generally work up in the mountains in the latter part
of June and the poorest of the cattle are fed in the winter; others stay on the
snow on the foothills. The south side of the Snake range is not used much on
account of scarcity of water and the west side is generally too steep. Above
the timber line there is a great deal of barren country and nowhere was there
very much grass observed. Above 9,500 feet there are thickets of manzanita.
The flat top of Mt. Moraja is said to be excellent sheep range.
Wernstedt noted that most of the settlers "would favor the inclusion of these mountains" in
a national forest "with a view to preserving the timber and as a protection to their water."
Sheepmen, however, were opposed to the establishment of a national forest, because "a
cutting down on the sheep" would "be needed to improve the range."
In conclusion, Wernstedt proposed that the Snake and Osceola, as well as the Ely and
Steptoe, national forests be established. The Snake and Osceola national forests were to
comprise 132,000 and 57,700 acres, respectively. His rationale for these recommendations
read:
There is no strong argument or any immediate urgent need of establishing any
of these Forests at this time. As stated before, it is possible but at the same
time it is a matter of uncertainty whether the Snake Forest will ever be cut off
to such an extent as to seriously injure the water supply and the interests
239
affected are, furthermore, small, and there may be very little Reserve business,
all depending on mining development. Very likely they will be cut as they have
been in the past, and sufficiently to render it increasingly expensive to the
settlers to get lumber. On the other hand, control of the timber would insure
a permanent supply. The Forest could be improved and extended and the
range, as well as the water supply, could be improved and range developed
which would be a good thing in itself. Government control would be of a
decided benefit to the country but as the agricultural interests are comparatively
small it is doubtful if the benefits would justify or make up for the cost to the
Government, particularly if this Forest is considered by itself as one separate
proposition.
For the administration of these Forests there would be needed two men, one
Acting Supervisor, preferably a Ranger or a man that could be occupied with
planting work when not otherwise busy, and one Ranger to look after the stock
generally. Headquarters should be in Ely for both. This force, with some
Reserve authorization, would bring the cost of running the Forests up to $4,000
a year while the returns would probably be less than $2,000 which would be
drawn mainly from the stock and the sheep industries of the country. Not
considering the protection of the Duck Creek water, it must be held doubtful if
the benefits derived in the country would balance the cost to the Government
which is the most serious objection against the establishment of these Forests.
Considering all these Forests as one proposition these arguments lose some of
their force however. As a matter of general principles it seems that the natural
productiveness of this country ought to be maintained and its resources of wood
and grass be improved where there is any opportunity to do so rather than be
allowed to depreciate in these respects. It seems that a supply of timber like
that in the Snake range and in the Shell Creek range, the only body of timber
in the country within hundreds of miles, ought to be protected. It is
recommended that these Forests be created at this time if future control of the
areas is not assured, in which case the lands should be only withdrawn and
developments watched until the need becomes more apparent. If created,
special attention should be paid to improvement work in the Forest by planting
or otherwise on the head of Duck Creek and on suitable areas of the lower
Snake range.
Dead wood should be disposed of. There is not likely to be any demand for
it until other areas have been cut off. Sheep should be reduced gradually
particularly on the Shell Creek Mountains until a decided improvement of the
ranges has been noticed. They should be kept out of areas at the head of
creeks or springs where there are justified complaints and from other waters
as the need becomes apparent. All cattle regularly occupying the ranges should
be admitted. Number and seasons of sheep and stock will have to be
determined upon at the time of the organization of the Forests.19
In accordance with the recommendations of Wernstedt the Acting Secretary of the Interior
on September 1, 1906, "temporarily withdrew from all disposals except under the mineral
laws, certain vacant unappropriated public lands for the proposed Osceola Forest Reserve,
Nevada." The proposed forest reserve, in essence a consolidation of Wernstedt's Snake
and Osceola reserve proposals, was to comprise some 270,720 acres in three divisions -
19. "Report on the Proposed Ely, Steptoe, Osceola, and Snake National Forests, Nevada," by L. Von
Wernstedt, Forest Expert, Forest Service, 1906," RG 49, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington,
D.C.
240
west, east, and south. Much of present-day Great Basin National Park was incorporated
in the proposed southern division.20
The proposed Osceola Forest Reserve was never established. On February 10, 1909,
however, President Theodore Roosevelt issued Proclamation No. 839 (35 Stat. 2220)
creating Nevada National Forest, a reserve covering much of the same area as that of the
earlier Osceola proposal. The proclamation read in part:
there are hereby reserved from settlement or entry and set apart as a public
reservation, for the use and benefit of the people, all the tracts of land, in the
State of Nevada, shown as the Nevada National Forest on the two parts of the
diagram forming a part hereof.
The withdrawal made by this proclamation shall, as to all lands which are at this
date legally appropriated under the public land laws or reserved for any public
purpose, be subject to, and shall not interfere with or defeat legal rights under
such appropriation, nor prevent the use for such public purpose of lands so
reserved, so long as such appropriation is legally maintained, or such
reservation remains in force.21
In 1911 the Baker Administrative Site was established in the town of Baker, Nevada, by
President William Howard Taft. On the recommendation of the Secretary of Agriculture it
was ordered "that the E. 1/2 of the N.W. 1/4 of Section 9, T. 13 N., R. 70 E., M.D.M.,
Nevada, containing 80 acres, be temporarily withdrawn from settlement, location, scale or
entry" and "be reserved for use by the Forest Service as a ranger station in the
administration of the [Nevada] National Forest."22
BOUNDARY ADJUSTMENTS TO NEVADA NATIONAL FOREST: 1912-1919
During the early months of 1911 Forest Service personnel conducted additional surveys of
Nevada National Forest for the purpose of making boundary adjustments. One of the
surveys is pertinent to this study since it related to the Snake Mountains and areas within
present-day Great Basin National Park. On March 16, 1911, Forest Supervisor Royal F.
Mathias approved "A Report For Additions to and Eliminations From the Snake Division
and the North End of the Schell Creek Div. of the Nevada National Forest." The report,
which had been prepared by Deputy Forest Supervisor Rudolph Dieffenbach,
recommended the addition of 134,080 acres to the Snake Division and 5,160 acres to the
north end of the Schell Creek Division and the elimination of 7,200 acres from the former
and 4,480 acres from the latter. Concerning the topography of the proposed additions and
eliminations on the Snake Division, Dieffenbach noted:
20. Chief, Division "R," General Land Office to Chief, Division "C," General Land Office, September 7, 1906,
and Chief of Drafting Division, General Land Office to Chief of Division "R," General Land Office, September 10,
1906, RG 49, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C., and Acting Secretary, Department
of the Interior to Commissioner of the General Land Office, September 1, 1906, Historical Files, U.S. Forest Service,
Intermountain Regional Office, Ogden, Utah. See the following pages for copies of maps of each of the three
divisions of the proposed Osceola Forest Reserve.
21. Nevada National Forest, Nevada, By the President of the United States of America, A Proclamation,
February 10, 1909 (Proclamation No. 839 - 35 Stat. 2220). See Appendix P for a copy of the full proclamation
and accompanying maps.
22. Secretary of Agriculture to Secretary of the Interior, April 28, 1911, and Acting Secretary of the Interior
to the President, May 16, 1911, RG 49, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
241
242
243
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The topography of the land recommended for addition to the Snake Division,
comprising the Snake and Mount Moraja ranges, is a rough limestone
formation, which rises rather abruptly from the valley. The present line crosses
country of this nature, not only excluding land carrying four or more cords to the
acre, but making the administration most difficult.
The areas recommended for elimination on the Schell Creek and the Snake
Division are open bench lands, covered only with sage brush and grass. These
areas should, by all means, be excluded as they cannot be considered forest
land in any sense of the word.
You will observe that the boundary as recommended in T. 14 N., R. 69 E., on
the east side of the Snake range conforms to a previous recommendation for
a change of this line. Your attention is also called to the proposed addition of
Section 20, of the same township, part of which is sage and grass land, which
is desirable for an administrative site. Section 13 of T. 13 N., R. 69 E. is also
desired for the same purpose, and the line cannot be recommended to exclude
any part without throwing out some of the land desired.
The tier of sections recommended for addition on the north end of the Snake
range in T. 14 N., Ranges 68 and 69 East, contains a few patches of
merchantable timber - the balance being Juniper and Single Leaf Pine running
four or more cords per acre.
It is presumed by the examiner that this land was purposely excluded by the
previous examiners fearing that it would include mining claims in the vicinity of
Osceola, but this is not the case.
Dieffenbach elaborated on three points to justify his recommendations for additions to the
forest divisions. These were the importance of forest lands as protective cover for
watersheds and the need to acquire lands for more efficient grazing administration and
provide more extensive fire protection. He stated:
Every spring and every stream of running water in the proposed additions are
used, either for irrigation of ranches, or for use in the mining camps and mills.
It would be very conservative to place the acreage of ranches at present
deriving their water from the Snake and Moraja ranges at 12,000 acres; while
with further development of irrigation schemes, and use of sub-irrigated lands,
etc., there could probably be at least 30,000 acres more put under cultivation.
There are 3 mills and 4 mining camps dependent for their water from these
sources. One of the mills has been forced to put in a concrete dam to catch
the sub-surface flow in a canyon, showing the value of water here. As will be
noted, later, the chances for further development of mining and milling are very
bright. The value of the forests as protection to water shed is undoubted, as
in all this district, the snow and summer storms are liable to go off in torrents,
and the value of forested watershed in such case has been fully demonstrated.
As water is so valuable here, and as all the principal creeks of this district are
included in the parts recommended for addition, the value of these additions can
be readily appreciated.
To reach the higher grazing lands that are already in the Forest, it is of course
necessary to cross the country recommended for addition which provides forage
for grazing animals on the wooded areas. There are no large areas covered
only with grass. The proper protection of the water that rises inside the present
245
boundary and flows through the mountainous wooded country that is here
recommended for addition should be a very important consideration in approving
the changes. As the boundary now stands on the Snake division, the control
of the range will never meet with entire success.
The fact that the timbered areas on the Snake Division have all been burned
over, certainly justifies the inclusion of these areas, so that in the future they
will be protected.
When lumber sells in the millyard at $30.00 per thousand feet, as it does on
the Snake Division, and the supply does not meet the demand, its conservation
and protection on the public lands is a duty that should be performed and can
only be done effectually by including the areas that are here recommended
within the Nevada National Forest. This protection can be accomplished without
increasing the present force of the Forest.
In conclusion, Dieffenbach noted:
The lands recommended for elimination should be eliminated because they are
strictly grazing in character and cannot be considered forest land in any sense
of the word.
The land recommended for addition should be included to protect the water
sheds outside the present Forest boundary from over grazing; and especially
that the administration of the areas now within the boundaries may be more
thorough and efficient. The additions recommended, with the exception of a few
small tracts of grass land, either bear four or more cords of Juniper and Single
Leaf Pine per acre, or large bodies of commercial timber. The latter should be
protected from fire, grazing, and other damage so that the local market can be
assured of a constant supply, commensurate with the capacity of the timber
land.
The present value of the proposed addition is greater for its forest cover and
forest products than for any other purpose.23
The boundary adjustments recommended by Dieffenbach and other examiners for other
areas of Nevada National Forest were consolidated into one proposal by Forest Examiner
Robert R. Reynolds on June 20, 1911. In his report on June 20, 1911, he found
that the Moraja and Snake divisions of the Forest are excellent nuclei of Forest
divisions, owing to the several useful streams which flow from them and the
existence of sawtimber at their heads. The additions which have been proposed
by previous examiners consist merely in bringing the present boundaries down
to the foot of the steep mountain slopes for the purpose of easy administration.
While some of the lands thus included are not intrinsically valuable for forest
23. "A Report For Additions to and Eliminations From the Snake Division and the North End of the Schell
Creek Div. of the Nevada National Forest," by Rudolph Dieffenbach, Examiner, Deputy Forest Supervisor, March
16, 1911, L-Boundaries, Nevada, 1911, Record Group 95, Records of the U.S. Forest Service, National Archives
and Records Administration, San Francisco Branch, San Bruno, California (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No.
9539).
246
purposes, and would not come in under either rule, yet the reasons for making
the additions are perfectly valid and are approved without exception.24
On October 28, 1912, the boundaries of Nevada National Forest were formally adjusted
when President William Howard Taft issued Proclamation No. 1221 (37 Stat. 1766). The
proclamation stated in part:
The withdrawal made by this proclamation shall, as to all lands which are at this
date legally appropriated under the public land laws or reserved for any public
purpose, be subject to, and shall not interfere with or defeat legal rights under
such appropriation, nor prevent the use of such public purpose of lands so
reserved, so long as such appropriation is legally maintained, or such
reservation remains in force.
The lands herein eliminated from the Nevada National Forest are hereby
withdrawn for classification under the Act of June twenty-fifth, nineteen hundred
and ten (36 Stat., 847), and will, when compatible with the public interests, be
restored to settlement and entry under the laws applicable thereto on such dates
as shall be fixed by the Secretary of the Interior and after such notice as he
may deem advisable.
This proclamation shall not prevent the settlement and entry of any lands
heretofore opened to settlement and entry under the act of Congress approved
June eleventh, nineteen hundred and six, entitled "An Act To provide for the
entry of Agricultural lands within forest reserves."25
According to the Acting Secretary of the Interior the boundary adjustments were necessary
because the original forest lines "had been found upon thorough examination to be drawn
so as to include some rather low grade woodland areas and to exclude other heavier
timbered tracts." The readjustment was designed "to take in the better lands from a Forest
standpoint and to exclude those of less importance." The new boundary line was to be
placed "in such a position with reference to the topography of the country as to include
woodland over four cords per acre and to exclude woodland less than four cords per acre
and at the same time have the line drawn as to be conveniently administered."26 All told,
some 335,840 acres were to be eliminated, leaving a total of some 330,480 acres within
the adjusted boundaries.
The boundary adjustments included both additions and eliminations from the Snake Division.
A narrow strip was eliminated from the southwest boundary of the division from the
Mount Washington area to the 2d Standard Parallel North since it was "all benchland
without cover or value for Forest purposes." Considerable acreage was added to the
north, east, and south boundaries of the division "where the Forest boundary was placed
along the lower foothills, thus including rolling land partly covered with pinion and juniper."
24. Robert D. Reynolds, Forest Examiner to District Forest, Ogden, Utah, June 20, 1911, L-Boundaries,
Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location
No. 9539).
25. Nevada National Forest (Second Proclamation), By the President of the United States of America, A
Proclamation, October 28, 1912 (Proclamation No. 1221 - 37 Stat. 1766). See Appendix Q for a copy of the full
proclamation and accompanying maps.
26. Acting Secretary of the Interior to Secretary of the Interior, October 3, 1912, and attached memorandum,
RG 49, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington D.C.
247
Among other things these additions incorporated Lehman Caves and its surrounding area
within the forest.
Further boundary changes to Nevada National Forest were made in 1919. The changes
primarily involved the elimination of lands from the national forest and restoration of such
lands to the public domain for homestead entry. Surveys indicated that none of the lands
were of value for reservoir or water power purposes. The greater part of the lands to be
eliminated (more than 52,000 acres) consisted of sagebrush "having practically no forest
value." Only a small portion of the lands (some 225 acres) were "classified as of
agricultural value."28
The boundary changes were formally implemented on January 25, 1919, by President
Woodrow Wilson. The proclamation stated in part:
And I do further proclaim and make known that in my judgment it is proper and
necessary, in the interest of equal opportunity and good administration, that all
of the excluded lands subject to disposition should be restored to homestead
entry in advance of settlement or other forms of disposition, and pursuant to the
authority reposed in me by the aforesaid act of September thirtieth, nineteen
hundred and thirteen, I do hereby direct and provide that such lands, subject
to valid rights and the provisions of the homestead laws requiring residence, at
and after, but not before, nine o'clock A.M., standard time, on the sixty-third day
after the date of this proclamation, and to settlement and other disposition under
any public land law applicable thereto, at and after, but not before, nine o'clock
A.M., standard time, on the seventieth day after said date.29
U.S. FOREST SERVICE ADMINISTRATIVE DEVELOPMENT IN THE SOUTHERN SNAKE
RANGE
Documentation concerning the early administration of Nevada National Forest is somewhat
sketchy. According to an inspection report prepared by Inspector of Grazing Ernest Winkler
on October 25, 1916, Nevada National Forest, consisting of 1,260,800 acres, was
administered by a forest supervisor, forest clerk, and four forest rangers. Headquarters for
the forest were located in Ely. The forest was divided into five administrative units: Schell
Creek Division (291,570.5 acres); Mount Moraja Division (132,620 acres); Snake Creek
Division, which included the area of present-day Great Basin National Park (183,083.24
acres); Quinn Canyon Division (249,761.76 acres); and White Pine Division (362,929.94
acres). The five divisions were divided into four ranger districts, each under the immediate
supervision of a forest ranger.
Although the districts were relatively large, Winkler characterized them as having "limited
activity," thus requiring little supervision. The grazing authorization for the entire forest was
27. "History of the Nevada National Forest Written by George C. Larson in 1917," in Donnel J. Ward, comp.,
History of the Humboldt N.F. [1960], Historical Files, USFS, Elko.
28. Secretary of Agriculture to Secretary of the Interior, December 22, 1917, and Commissioner, General
Land Office to Register and Receiver, Elko, Nevada, February 25, 1919, RG 49, National Archives and Records
Administration, Washington, D.C.
29. Nevada National Forest, Nevada (Third Proclamation), By the President of the United States of America,
A Proclamation, January 25, 1919, RG 49, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C. See
Appendix R for a copy of the full proclamation and a portion of the map covering the area of the Snake Division.
Shaded areas on the map indicate land eliminations.
248
6,000 cattle and horses and 56,000 sheep (1,500 cattle and horses and 13,000 sheep on
the Snake Creek Division), and free use timber cutting and timber sales were limited.
There was no range immediately adjacent to the forest that was used by sheep during the
summer. Thus, there was little likelihood of trespass on forest lands from that source. The
tendency of the cattle was to drift off rather than on to forest lands, because they were
accustomed to range in the valleys below. In view of these conditions "the need for as
intensive supervision as is necessary on the intensely used Forest of Utah and Idaho" was
"not necessary on the Nevada." Thus, the Nevada could "be successfully administered by
four rangers," but would "necessitate close field supervision on the part of the Supervisor
and the development of systematic and organized effort."
According to the inspection report, the Snake Creek and Mount Moraja divisions were
administered as part of the Baker Ranger District under the supervision of Forest Ranger
Charles P. Thompson. District headquarters were located in the Baker Ranger Station
"about a block, or a block and one-half from the Baker postoffice, store and hotel." The
ranger station was located on 80 acres of land, 20 of which produced "a rather poor stand
of meadow grass."
The Baker Ranger Station, according to Winkler, did not "present a very dignified
appearance" and was "probably not up to the standard of the ordinary ranch houses in
Baker." The house consisted of four small rooms and was "constructed on a square similar
to the usual Ranger Station house." The structure, which served as a home for Thompson,
his wife, and four children, as well as his office and storage space for Forest Service
supplies, was "unsightly," having several colors of paint and no porch. A deteriorating barn
was on the premises, and the unfenced yard was overgrown with weeds.
Among the important administrative issues facing the Baker Ranger District, as well as the
entire Nevada National Forest, were water development, trail construction, sign installation,
boundary marking, and fire control. According to Winkler, efforts should be initiated to
enlarge the grazing area of the forest by securing a proper system of water development.
He especially urged construction of long, galvanized one-piece troughs supported by cedar
posts "for sheep watering purposes."
Trail development was to be deferred "in view of the more important projects, administrative
and water development." Meanwhile, the rangers should be responsible for "brushing out
and keeping intact present trails." This could be done with little inconvenience if the
rangers would "carry an appropriate axe for the purpose, at least a portion of the time."
While road and trail signing had received little attention, Winkler felt that plans for such
signs should be given immediate attention. He especially urged the necessity of placing
fire warning signs on trees throughout the forest. As an example he commented on some
fire problems on the Snake Division:
While going over the Snake Division with Ranger Thompson, we rode up a
small canyon southwest of Baker, known as Sage Hen Creek and down
Strawberry Creek to Potter's June 1 1 claim. Shortly previous to our ride over
this section, it was clearly evident that some one had gone through about the
same route and started fires all along the trail, so that areas had been burned
over along the streams, varying in size from five to twenty or thirty acres and
in the aggregate had burned over about 150 to 200 acres of sagebrush land
and a considerable amount of cottonwood and other underbrush. It is probable
that the presence of a lot of conspicuous fire warnings may have had sufficient
influence to avoid this occurrence. In any event I suggested to Ranger
Thompson that he make an effort to ascertain who was responsible for the fires.
249
Winkler also recommended that permanent boundary marking be expedited on Nevada
National Forest. The boundaries were to "be marked with cedar posts, peeled and made
conspicuous by the use of paint." Where posts were not available, "appropriate rock
monuments built after a pattern that will distinguish them" should be constructed.30
By 1921 the Baker Ranger District was being supervised by Forest Ranger Graham S.
Quate. He was a new employee with the Forest Service, having had experience in
ranching and handling of stock on the range. Prior to joining the Forest Service he had
worked as a clerk for the Internal Revenue Service.
The ranger station in Baker had been improved since the earlier inspection in 1916 found
the site to be in a deteriorated condition. The station's improvements consisted of
a four-room frame house (26' x 26') boards verticle and battened with shingle
roof; a two-room log building (one used for office and the other for supplies);
a 10' x 14' garage, log with corrugated iron roof; an 18' x 28' log barn with
shingle roof; a little shack used for a chicken coop; and a good yard fence and
pasture fence. The house, through the industry and ingenuity of the present
Ranger and his predecessor, has been made into a fairly comfortable dwelling.
One room was beaver boarded last year and is very comfortable and presents
a very neat appearance. The rest of the house should be beaver boarded at
the very earliest opportunity. The Ranger at this station comes in contact with
the public more than the rest on this Forest and this station is visited more and
the Service should provide quarters which are a credit to it. The house has no
foundation, but it is planned to construct one this year. The two-room log
building used for office and store room was built of old logs previously used for
another building. They have done a very good job considering the material
available and the building is a very serviceable one, although not very pretty to
look at. The office room has been beaver boarded and has a good floor in
it and makes a very presentable office. The store room is satisfactory for its
purpose. An old cellar is on the place which is not much account and presents
a bad appearance. It should be replaced. The garage is a good little building.
The barn is a one-story log building with shingle roof. It is 18' x 28' and has
four double stalls. It's a pretty good stable, but is not provided with any room
for hay, no grain bin nor saddle and harness room. There is a well constructed
woven wire fence around the yard and it adds materially to the appearance of
the place. There is also a good wire fence on the rest of the 80 enclosing the
so called pasture. The pasture is a place for stock to exercise. Hay must be
fed the year around. Arrangements are being made for water for the place.
It is badly needed. Quate has put in a little lawn and a number of trees and
has a small stream of water for them and a small garden. The station as a
whole presents a very good appearance and shows a lot of work by the
Ranger.31
30. Memorandum for the District Forester, Ernest Winkler, Inspector of Grazing, October 25, 1916, 1440-
Inspection, Year 1916, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-
333/Location No. 88830).
31. Memorandum for District Ranger, C.B. Morse, Assistant District Forester, June 8, 1921, 1440-lnspection,
Year 1921, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No.
88830). During the 1920s or early 1930s a Snake Administrative Pasture was fenced along Snake Creek for the
use of the Baker District Ranger.
250
In September 1932, some eleven years later, Forest Supervisor C.J. Olsen visited the
Baker Ranger District to evaluate its administrative operations. His report, which was
prepared on February 11, 1933, contained the following description of activity in the district:
The Baker Ranger District is the smallest district on the Nevada N.F. and
contains a gross area of 297,508 acres, the average for the Forest being
approx. 516,000 acres. There are 141 miles of exterior Forest boundary, the
average exterior Forest boundary being 248 miles for the six ranger districts.
Permit obligations are 608 C&H and 14,452 S&G with no lambing privileges.
There is some little timber activity on the district and a lot of recreational use
on the Lehman Creek and Baker drainages. The Lehman Caves National
Monument, which is under the supervision of the Government, is also located
on the district. Everything considered the work on this ranger district is below
the average on this Forest.32
During the mid- and late-1930s the Baker Administrative Site was upgraded. New
structures were built to house the district ranger and provide space for storage and
administrative purposes. A barn, various outbuildings, and corral were constructed to care
for horses used by the ranger to cover his district.
Various reorganizations during the next two decades led to more streamlined and efficient
management of Nevada National Forest. In 1954 the forest was under the administrative
oversight of a forest supervisor. A construction and maintenance foreman in charge of road
and building maintenance answered directly to the forest supervisor. An administrative
assistant also answered directly to the forest supervisor and supervised personnel in charge
of safety, general office administration, purchasing, property, warehousing, budgeting,
clerical help, headquarters improvements and maintenance, fiscal training, and inspections,
and fire guards. Under the administrative assistant were four district rangers, each in
charge of one or more forest divisions. The Baker Ranger District continued to administer
the Snake and Mount Moriah divisions.33
In May 1957 the ranger districts in Nevada National Forest were consolidated as part of
a cost-cutting move to streamline management. Among other organizational moves, the
Baker and Ely ranger districts were combined with headquarters for the enlarged Ely
District, which included the Snake, Mount Moriah, and Schell Creek divisions, located in Ely.
Thus, the Baker district ranger position was eliminated and the ranger station downgraded
in status to a guard station.
Effective July 1, 1957, the boundaries of three national forests in Nevada were realigned.
Nevada National Forest, with headquarters in Ely, was dissolved, the Charleston Mountain
area near Las Vegas being transferred to Toiyabe National Forest and the White Pine and
Ely ranger districts being transferred to Humboldt National Forest with headquarters in Elko.
The realignment of administrative units was announced as "part of a servicewide program
32. Memorandum, C.J. Olsen, Forest Supervisor, February 11, 1933, 1440-lnspection, Year 1933, RG 95,
National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No. 88830).
33. Organization Chart, Nevada National Forest, January 27, 1954, O-Organization-Nevada-General, CY 1954,
RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61 B-320/Location No. 88817).
34. L.A. Dremolski, Forest Supervisor to Regional Forester, November 8, 1957, Notebook - "HNF History,
Information & Education," and L.A. Dremolski, Forest Supervisor to Files, March 14, 1961, Notebook - "HNF
History, Administration & Operation," Historical Files, USFS, Elko.
251
to increase the efficiency of operation and to give better service to the people who use the
national forests."35
The Snake Division of Humboldt National Forest has continued to be administered under
the auspices of the Ely Ranger District to the present. As indicated in an organization
chart of the Ely Ranger District dated September 1, 1965 (a copy of the organization chart
as well as one for Humboldt National Forest dated August 26, 1965, may be seen on the
following pages), the district ranger represented "the Forest Supervisor in the administration
of the Ely Ranger District" concerning "Range, Lands, Multiple-use, Engineering, Information
& Education, Watershed, and Personnel."
Accompanying the organization chart was a position description for the Ely District Forest
Ranger. This document stated that the District Forest Ranger was responsible "for the
administration, protection, development, and utilization of all resources and improvements
of the Ely Ranger District." The district covered some 585,000 acres, of which
approximately 9,000 acres were alienated lands. The district included the Snake,
Mount Moriah, and Schell Creek divisions, separated units extending over an area
approximately 75 miles in length and 45 miles in width. Administration of the district
involved "a variety of unusual and difficult technical and administrative problems and
decisions in achieving and maintaining sustained yield production of important water, forage,
wildlife and other resources." Administration was "further complicated" by "interrelated
values of, and conflicting demands for, the various resources, and fluctuating economic
conditions in adjacent or dependent communities."
In his administrative tasks the district forest ranger was aided by an assistant district
ranger. This position had supervisory authority over two forest work leaders and
administered programs related to fire, recreation, wildlife, improvements, finances, timber,
and safety.36
Further consolidation and administrative realignment resulted in the reduction of ranger
districts in Humboldt National Forest to five by 1984. The districts were Mountain City,
Ruby Mountains, Jarbidge, Santa Rosa, and Ely. The latter district, headquartered in Ely,
administered the Schell Creek, Snake, and White Pine divisions, as well as Ward Mountain,
in White Pine County, the Grant Range in Nye County, and the Quinn Canyon Range in
Nye and Lincoln counties.37
By the mid-1980s the Forest Service was using five facilities for management of the Snake
Division. The Baker Guard Station consisted of an office, bunkhouse, two trailers pads,
pumphouse, warehouse, barn, corral, fire cache, two metal buildings, and pasture. At
Lehman Caves was a home (built in 1970), mobile home, audiovisual trailer, dump station
with holding tank and grinder pump, and the Forest Service portion of the Lehman Caves
Visitor Center. In Murphy Wash was a one-room cabin, outhouse, corral, and pasture.
35. News Service, Forest Service, Release, June 27, 1957, Notebook - "HNR History, Information & Education,"
Historical Files, USFS, Elko.
36. Position Description - Ely District Forest Ranger, Notebook - "Position Management Review, Humboldt
N.F., 1965," Historical Files, USFS, Elko.
37. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Humboldt National Forest Land and Resource Management
Plan, Final Environmental Impact Statement, [1986], 111-1.
252
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A trailer was located at Cedar Cabin Springs, and on Bald Mountain was a corrugated
metal building housing a radio repeater (battery/photovoltaic system).38
During the early 1 980s the Forest Service developed a Humboldt National Forest Land and
Resource Management Plan to provide a strategy for managing the forest lands for the next
ten to fifteen years. The final plan, which was approved in 1 986 just prior to establishment
of Great Basin National Park, provided for a reorganization of the Snake Division into a
Snake Management Area of 128,669 acres and a Bristlecone Recommended Wilderness
Management Area of 51,700 acres. The plan included management direction, standards,
and guidelines for both areas.39
U.S. FOREST SERVICE REVEGETATION EFFORTS IN THE SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE
During the years 1912-17 the Forest Service commenced a planting and seeding program
on the Snake Division of Nevada National Forest. The principal areas of planting were
along Snake Creek and in Pole Canyon. The purpose of the planting endeavor was "to
determine the practicability of re-foresting this section of the country.40
A five-acre plot near the middle fork of Snake Creek was planted with two-year-old Douglas
fir seedlings in the fall of 1911. Some 5,000 trees, obtained from Wasatch National Forest,
were planted in "6" x 6' pits." By 1915 all the trees were dead, having been killed by harsh
winter weather and frozen ground. It was noted that future planting should be completed
by September 15.41
Planting and seeding operations were commenced on a 100-acre site near the "head of
Pole Canyon, a tributary of Baker Creek" during the fall of 1912. The seeds and seedlings
planted were "2-0 Yellow Pines" obtained from the Pocatello, Idaho, nursery of Ashley
National Forest. Forest Supervisor George C. Thompson described the seedling project in
October 1912:
I arrived at the camp late in the afternoon of September 28, at which time the
seedlings were removed from the crate and found to be in excellent condition.
Preparations were immediately made for heeling in the plants and providing
brush to afford about a half shade. The heeling in bed was located in close
approximity to camp, but not on the area selected for planting, and each time
upon leaving camp we would transfer to a temporary bed on the planting site
about the number of plants we expected could be planted during the shift. The
seedlings consisted entirely of 2-0 Yellow Pines, and consequently but one
planting site was chosen. The site is located just above a small basin near the
head of Pole Canyon, a tributary to Baker Creek. The basin is dotted with
38. Development, Special Uses, Basic Data, Great Basin National Park General Management Planning Team
Files, Denver Service Center, National Park Service. After the Forest Service home was built at Lehman Caves
in 1970, the former district ranger's residence at Baker was moved to Ely for use as administrative quarters.
39. Humboldt National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan, [1986], IV, 156-69.
40. S. Planting - Nevada, Snake Creek, North Fork, Snake Creek, P2, 1911-15, RG 95, National Archives
and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61B-320/Location No. 88818). See the following page for
a copy of "Nevada National Forest Planting Map" [ca. 1912-17].
41. Progress Reports on Plantations, 1911-15, S. Planting, Nevada, Snake Creek, North Fork, Snake Creek,
P2, 1911-15, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61 B-320/Location
No. 88818).
255
■■ T^As /ant/ Ca^/^-s JGn^pcr M*4up»lf
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256
mature Yellow Pines and a fairly good natural reproduction. It is estimated that
there is probably from 50 to 75,000 feet B.M. of mature Yellow Pine in the
basin. The area chosen has a northwestern exposure and the slopes vary from
10° to 20°. The cover consists chiefly of quaking asp, interspersed with a
scant reproduction of Alpine Fir and Douglas Fir, with occasional small open
areas of sagebrush. The soil in places consists of an admixture of coarse
washed gravel and black loam. In other places, and in fact throughout the
major portion of the site, a rich black loam, practically free from rock,
predominates. This soil was moist and rich, and should be very conducive to
reproduction.
The work was performed entirely by Ranger labor, there being seven men,
including myself, employed throughout the planting. Beginning the first thing in
the morning, three men were designated to handle the mattock, three to do the
planting and one man to distribute the plants. . . . This man [who dropped the
plants] had to take the plants from the temporary heeling in bed, and in turn
convey them to the holes in the five gallon can partially filled with a good rich
puddling mixture, which covered the roots and kept them always fresh and in
good condition. In planting, the utmost care was exercised to prevent the
accumulation of debris, clots and barren soil around the roots, and the plants
were set as in the operation of transplanting young cabbage plants, with a full
determination of having each plant live and make a thrifty growth. This
arrangement was followed throughout the job, and by so doing we were enabled
to plant at the rate of 2,000 seedlings per day, completing the job in 2-1/2 days
actual planting. I certainly anticipate the most promising results from this
experiment.
The total cost of planting, including the time of Forest officers together with all
expenses properly chargeable against the project, amounted to $207.83, or
$41.57 per acre. Deducting Forest officers' time, plus cost of seedlings the
cash outlay was $84.51, or an average of $16.90 per acre.42
In November Acting Forest Supervisor Doctor B. Bailey provided further data on the Pole
Canyon seeding activity in a report to his superiors. He stated:
Camp was established at a spring in Pole Canyon adjacent to the seeding and
planting areas. As, by far, the best stand of Yellow Pine in this Forest is in the
canyon, the site chosen was thought very favorable to this species. The area
selected for planting is covered with a thick stand of Aspen, except on the very
southern part which has a stand of Yellow Pine, Spruce and Alpine Fir.
The site was poisoned on September 3, twenty days prior to the time seeding
was begun. The formulae used was, wheat, one bushel; water, one quart;
starch, two table spoons full; saccharine, two table spoons full; strychnine, two
ounces.
The seeding was done entirely with corn planters. Our instructions were to
plant the seeds at a distance of 7 ft. apart and twenty-one to the spot. These
instructions were followed out as nearly as possible. The leaves and litter were
removed from the ground each time so the seed could be planted in the ground.
42. "Report on the Pole Canyon Planting Site, Nevada National Forest," by George C. Thompson, Forest
Supervisor, October 15, 1912, S. Planting - Nevada, Head of Pole Canyon, Baker Creek, P2, 1911-17, RG 95,
National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61 B-320/Location No. 88818).
257
The soil was then firmly pressed over the seed with the foot. While seeding
was in progress we were greatly bothered with field mice, which dug and ate
the planted seed. At this time we tried poisoning them with wheat but had no
success. We then poisoned some of the seed and put it out with good results.
While I realized this was an expensive step to take, yet, with the rapidity with
which the mice were eating the sown seed, and extreme measure became
necessary. I see no reason why all the seed could not be poisoned before it
was planted, as any rodents attacking it would be killed, before any appreciable
damage could be done. Again, I see no reason why poisoning the seed to be
sown would retard its germination. There seems to be some particular aroma
attached to the seed, which makes the rodents hunt them out.43
Despite the initial promise of this planting program, however, the project proved to be a
failure. By 1915 the seeds and seedlings were dead, primarily because of mice and rabbits
who ate the seeds and terminal buds. The outside areas of the plant hills were "too large
for poison to keep down the Rodents." The dry mulch and leaf mold was also too light
and did not hold moisture long enough to enable the seeds to germinate. Forest Service
officials concluded that in the future seedlings should be two years old before planting and
that they should be established early before the "equanoxial storms."44
A third area on the Snake Division to be planted was a 512-acre plot along Snake Creek
during 1912-13. Using yellow pine seeds obtained from Black Hills National Forest, the
planting activity followed the same procedures as those used in Pole Canyon. By 1913 this
planting area was declared a failure, the trees dying because of rodents, frozen ground,
and very light leaf mold that did not hold moisture long enough for the seeds to
germinate.45
Planting and reseeding programs on the Snake Division continued sporadically into the
1930s. On February 11, 1933, for instance, Forest Supervisor C.J. Olsen reported:
We visited a small planting area in Pole Canyon and it is apparent that we are
getting fairly good results from this planting. Ranger Taylor required the sheep
permittee to place a temporary fence around the area last summer so as to
avoid damage by sheep since it was necessary for him to water his sheep in
close proximity to the area. A small portable fence was constructed and
removed when the sheep were taken away, which involved very little expense.
Taylor is keeping plant development records but in at least one case the plant
development area was poorly selected. The plant development area should be
representative of the unit or zone which it is to represent and we should avoid
any tendency to locate them in easy locations if they are not representative of
the zone. Seven plant development signs will be sent Ranger Taylor before the
43. "Nevada National Forest, Seeding Report," by Doctor B. Bailey, Acting Forest Supervisor, November 11,
1912, S. Planting - Nevada, Head of Pole Canyon, Baker Creek, P2, 1911-17, RG 95, National Archives and
Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61B-320/Location No. 88818).
44. Reports of Seeding Areas, S. Planting - Nevada, Head of Pole Canyon, Baker Creek, P2, 1911-17, RG
95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61 B-320/Location No. 88818).
45. Reports on Seeding Areas, S. Planting, Nevada, Snake Cr., Middle Fork, Snake Creek, P3, RG 95,
National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61B-320/Location No. 88818).
258
opening of the growing season in accordance with my promise to him. His
plant development areas are now marked with improvised wooden signs.46
U.S. FOREST SERVICE TIMBER UTILIZATION AND PRESERVATION POLICIES IN THE
SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE
Timber utilization policies in Nevada National Forest were governed by provisions in the
aforementioned Use Book. In that volume Pinchot stated:
All timber on forest reserves which can be cut safely and for which there is
actual need is for sale. Applications to purchase are invited. Green timber
may be sold except where its removal makes a second crop doubtful, reduces
the timber supply below the point of safety, or injures the streams. All dead
timber is for sale.
The prime object of the forest reserves is use. While the forest and its
dependent interests must be made permanent and safe by preventing
overcutting or injury to young growth, every reasonable effort will be made to
satisfy legitimate demands.47
To understand the prevailing conditions of "timber sales" and free use business on lands
of the Nevada National Forest Supervisor George C. Thompson recommended three field
trip inspections during June 1916. Two of the inspections were along Snake Creek and
in Pole Canyon. Conducted by Forest Examiner Nilo B. Eckbo, the inspections were
ordered "to make examinations of current methods of disposal of timber, with special
reference to marking, utilization, brush disposal, scaling, sawmills and the careful
compliance with Forest Service regulations."
The timber sale of 10 m. feet at the head of Snake Creek had been awarded to Rudolph
Merchum on July 17, 1915. The inspection involved examination "of the old cutting areas,
the present sale area and the remaining virgin stand." The timber consisted of yellow pine,
Englemann spruce, Douglas fir, white and black fir, bristlecone pine, and lumber pine.
Cutting in the canyon, according to Eckbo, had been conducted for years. The logs were
hauled to the mill which was "still located at the lower edge of the timber." Eckbo reported
further:
The lumber was used throughout the Snake Valley by settlers for building of
dwellings, barns and so forth, which is also the case at the present time. All
trees except dead have been marked for cutting. . . . Defective and diseased
trees as well as undesirable species have been selected whenever possible and
a great amount of dead and down material has been removed. Special credit
should be given the ranger and operator in the successful utilization of decayed
down material for fuel purposes.
The stumps were found to be in excellent condition as a whole, and only in
exceptional cases could the trees be utilized to a smaller diameter limit in the
top. Two trees were noticed to have caused damage to young trees. It was
46. Memorandum, C.J. Olsen, Forest Supervisor, February 11, 1933, 1440 - Inspection, Year 1933, RG 95,
National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No. 88830).
47. Quoted in Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, p. 273.
259
also observed, however, that the choppers efforts in saving the young growth
had been omitted by circumstances.
The contract calls for lopping of tops and scattering of brush. The tops had
invariably been lopped but the brush had frequently been left where it fell.
Ranger Thompson called the operator's attention to this point when we returned
to the mill.
Scaling is done on the millyard, where 26 logs had been yarded ready for
scaling. These logs were scaled by Ranger Thompson and afterwards check
scaled informally by myself. The latter scale exceeded the former 12% due to
full top diameter measurements.
A second timber sale to be inspected was located in Pole Canyon. This sale "of 170 M.
feet yellow pine veterans scattered along the canyon" had been awarded on November 22,
1915, to the Baker Livestock Company owned by Guy Saval, the wealthy sheepraiser who
had purchased the Baker Ranch the previous year. Eckbo noted that the largest trees
were six feet in diameter and eighty feet in height and scaled "as much as 4500 feet to the
tree." He went on to note:
They are decidedly overmature and while Yellow pine does not decay rapidly
they are far beyond the profitable stage and should be cut now when the timber
is urgently needed by the settlers. Since these trees probably represent some
of the largest Yellow pines in the State of Nevada, a few should be left for their
botanical interest and scenic beauty. The system of marking was discussed
thoroughly with Ranger Thompson and we scaled carefully a few of the trees
that had been cut. Mr. Thompson's scale varied only 5% from the check scale
this time which may be considered a permissible margin of error. The stumps
were all in fine shape and logs cut to a very satisfactory top diameter limit. The
larger limbs were to be hauled to Baker for fuel which would leave the cutting
area in tip top shape. Mr. Guy Saval, who represents the Baker Livestock Co.,
was granted advance cutting in this case, but could not take advantage of this
privilege for unforseen reasons. ... Mr. Saval expects to be able to complete
the cutting this year according to the contract, and move the sawmill from
Snake Gulch to Baker where the sawing is to take place.
Lumber hauled to Baker from Ely a distance of 60 miles, costs in the
neighborhood of $40 to $50 per M. feet. This price is, of course, almost
prohibitable for the settlers in poor circumstances.
Mr. Saval, who owns the only sawmill in this locality at this time is particularly
interested in the upbuilding of the country and would probably be willing to have
the sawing done at reasonable rates although this may curtail his profits to a
small extent.
The timber was appraised prior to the advertised sale to Mr. Saval and $3.00
is considered full value for the timber.
Eckbo concluded his report by urging that Forest Supervisor Thompson personally examine
all timber sale activities in the future. Permits for free use cutting were to be issued semi-
annually in person on areas conveniently located for the permittee. He recommended
liberal disposal of free use timber material "to settlers in their early stages, when they have
a hard task to make both ends meet" and "secondly, to people developing the mineral
wealth of the country." Sales of local timber to mining companies were to be discouraged,
260
however, when those firms could "obtain similar material at reasonable rates from outside
sources."48
Timber utilization issues on the Snake Division were not solely concerned with timber
sales. In November 1927, for instance, Associate Range Examiner Arnold R. Standing
drew attention to the problem of cutting down young pinyon pine trees on forest lands by
Indians living in the Baker area. The Indians were cutting the trees "to make shelters
around their camps" when they were "on the Forest to gather pine nuts." They cut limbs
for the shelters and "cut the tops out of the trees to get the nuts." These practices,
according to Standing, should be stopped immediately by Forest Service officials.
In his report Standing also commented on a beetle infestation problem on the south side
of Lehman Creek just above the Lehman Creek campgrounds. Some fifteen western
yellow pine trees had been killed, about six of which he "judged to be sorrel tops."
Although the area did not have a heavy stand of western yellow pines, he felt the
remaining trees were "worth saving, especially as they serve as seed trees, and may be
the means of starting a good stand of Western Yellow Pines." Furthermore, the "beautiful
Western Yellow Pines at the Lehman Creek campgrounds" were in danger of becoming
infested. Several days treatment could halt the infestation.49
In February 1933 Forest Supervisor C.J. Olsen reported that there was little lumbering in
the Baker Ranger District. He observed, however, that there was "considerable
merchantable timber on the district" and there was "likely to be occasional demand for
poles, house logs, and sawtimber from the neighboring small towns of Baker, Nevada, and
Garrison, Utah, and the ranchers surrounding the district." While there were no active
timber sales, the district ranger had prepared "suitable volume tables for use in making
sales by standing tree estimate."50
While there are no documentary records of major forest fires on the Snake Range during
U.S. Forest Service administration of the area, the bureau developed policies and practices
for fire prevention and suppression. By 1937 a Fire Plan Organization Chart had been
developed for the Baker Ranger District. It provided that four three-man fire fighting outfits
be located at Lehman Caves National Monument, Lehman Creek Recreational Area, the
Gruden Ranch at Shoshone, and the Yelland Ranch in Spring Valley. Each outfit was
equipped with fire tools, water bags, first aid kits, and related accessories.51
Beginning in 1937 old wooden fire warning signs were removed from Nevada National
Forest and replaced with new standard signs. The old wooden signs, which read "Fire
Season, Be Careful," were generally deteriorating, difficult to read, and often located in
remote areas. The new signs had standard board backs and were set up "on juniper posts
in carefully selected locations along roads and on recreation areas."
48. Memorandum for the District Forester, Timbersale and Free Use Business on the Nevada National Forest,
July 1, 1916, Nilo B. Eckbo, Forest Examiner, 1440 - Inspection, Year 1916, RG 95, National Archives and Records
Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No. 88830).
49. Memorandum for the District Forester, Arnold A. Standing, Associate Range Examiner, November 8, 1927,
1440 - Inspection, Year 1927, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No.
61-333/Location No. 88830).
50. Memorandum, C.J. Olsen, Forest Supervisor, February 11, 1933, 1440 - Inspection, Year 1933, RG 95,
National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No. 88830).
51. Memorandum, A.E. Briggs, Assistant Forest Supervisor, August 18, 1937, 1440 - Inspection, Year 1937,
RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No. 88830).
261
Fire control and prevention became a primary concern on the Snake Division in 1 939 after
three fires broke out along Lehman Creek. The largest fire covered 85 acres and resulted
from a camper dumping hot coals in a garbage pit. The fire spread "to mature Bromus
tectorum" and was fanned by high winds, thus threatening "to wipe out the improvements
on the Lehman Creek Campground and camping equipment of approximately 100 campers."
The campground was spared, but the fire "spread to the north hillside where it was stopped
that evening." Since the campground area had been protected from grazing for years,
forestry officials determined that "a dangerous hazard" had developed. Thus, the area was
"fireproofed" before the next camping season, and the area was reopened to sheep grazing
in the fall and spring to keep the grass down.52
Fire patrols continued to be the primary organizational units used to control and prevent
fires on the Snake Division. In 1954, for instance, it was noted that "per diem guards"
located around the forest boundaries were serving "both on detection and suppression."53
Timber resources and harvesting policies on the Snake Division were described in a Forest
Service brochure in 1960. The pamphlet noted:
Englemann spruce, Douglas fir, aspen, alpine fir, bristlecone pine, limber pine,
mountain mahogany, pinon pine, and juniper comprise the timber species of the
Snake Range. There are 21,800 acres of commercial forest land which has
sufficient timber volume to allow cutting of 1 to 1-1/2 million board feet each
year.
In addition to their importance for watershed protection, these stands take care
of local needs for sawtimber, posts, poles, mine props, and fuelwood. Since the
timber stands of the Snake Range are rather limited, and therefore highly
valuable, only the cutting of old mature trees and diseased, damaged or insect
infested trees is permitted. Thus cutting together with thinnings made for stand
improvement takes care of local demands for wood products.
Besides timber products the Forest Service sells about 1,500 pinon pine,
Christmas trees annually for local use. Pinon nut harvesting is also a popular
and profitable activity on the extensive pinon pine stand of the Snake Range.
During good years several tons of pine nuts were harvested by commercial pickers and
private individuals. Free use permits allowing a family to pick 25 pounds of nuts were
required and could be obtained at Forest Service offices in Ely and Baker. Commercial
pickers were charged 5 cents per pound for the nuts.54
By the mid-1980s the Forest Service estimated that there were 560,000 acres of
unreserved commercial forest land in Humboldt National Forest. This land was composed
52. G.W. Southwick, Assistant Forest Supervisor to Regional Forester, August 21, 1939, 1440 - Inspection,
Year 1939, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No.
88830).
53. L.A. Dremolski, Forest Supervisor to Ranger Fluckiger, August 24, 1954, 1440 - Inspection, 1954 Extra
Reports, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No.
88830).
54. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Snake Range, National Forest Features in Nevada, An
Educational Series, 1960, in Nevada Outdoor Recreation Association Papers, Nevada Historical Society, Reno.
262
primarily of 530,000 acres of commercial pinyon-juniper, located in the southern end of the
Ruby Mountain Ranger District and the lower slopes of the Ely Ranger District. The
remaining 30,000 acres were composed of isolated stands of Engelmann spruce, subalpine
fir, and limber pine at higher elevations of the Snake and Schell Creek divisions. Because
of limited access, low volume per acre, scattered stands, and the absence of area milling
and processing facilities, all timber was classed as unsuitable for industrial wood production.
The public's consumptive use of wood products from the forest during the mid-1980s
consisted primarily of fuelwood, Christmas trees, pine nuts, posts, and poles. A Forest
Service document stated:
Demand for fuelwood, in comparison to other wood products has seen the
largest increase in recent years. Demand is greater than supply in some areas.
However, it is estimated that only a small percentage of the Forest's potential
sustained yield pinyon-juniper fuelwood capacity is currently being utilized.
About 4,000 cords of fuelwood are harvested annually from July through
October. Approximately 600 posts are cut from juniper stands on the Forest
each year generally for local use by ranchers.
Approximately 2,000 Christmas trees are harvested annually during November
and December with pinyon pine the dominant species harvested. The limited
timber stand improvement program releases Christmas trees for harvest later.
The supply of pinenuts depends on the pinyon pine cone crop which can vary
from a few thousand pounds to a bumper crop of 100,000 pounds or more per
year. Bumper crops usually occur every 3-5 years. Commercial demand for
this product exceeds supply despite production levels achieved.55
U.S. FOREST SERVICE WILDLIFE AND FISH MANAGEMENT POLICIES IN THE
SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE
Little specific documentation is available concerning the variety and quantity of wildlife and
fish in the Snake Range prior to the early 1920s. In his History of Nevada published in
1881, Angel discussed these topics for White Pine County at large:
The larger wild game of White Pine County consists of mountain sheep, deer
and antelope; the smaller kinds include the wild cat, lynx, fox, coyote, hare,
porcupine, rabbit, badger, duck, goose, sage hen, snipe, curlew, grouse, and
prairie chicken. The mountain hare is much larger than the valley hare, and is
gray in color in the summer, and snow white in winter. The ducks, geese,
curlew, and snipe, are of several varieties. The sage hen feeds on sage only
in the winter, and in the summer and fall makes fine food. Deer are more
numerous in the mountains than when the county was first settled. In the
month of May they migrate northward, and return southward in October, by
regular trails.
After the settlement of some of the valleys, the coyotes became exceedingly
troublesome, and a war was waged against them by the ranchers, that almost
resulted in their extermination. Soon afterwards, the hare and rabbit multiplied
wonderfully, and became more troublesome than the coyotes had been. A
shooting match, that occurred in Steptoe Valley last season, illustrated their
55. Humboldt National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan, [1986], III, 22-23.
263
multiplicity. The rival parties were organized by Samuel Mosier, and consisted
of six hunters each, chosen from among the best shots of Hamilton. After three
hours of lively work, the supply of ammunition gave out. The number of hare
and rabbit slain were found to number 609, and an even larger number of dead
and wounded were found lying about the field the next day. During the present
season hare and rabbit have mysteriously disappeared, from the prevalence of
some disease among them, no doubt. The same thing has occurred once
before, within the memory of the Indians.
There are only two streams in White Pine County that have fish in them. In
1876 trout were placed in Cleveland Creek, in Spring Valley, and have multiplied
rapidly since. Lehman Creek, which flows into Snake Valley and then sinks,
also contains trout, and it is supposed that the Mormons, who formerly occupied
a portion of the valley, placed them there.56
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries fishing became an increasingly
popular activity in the Snake Range as reported in various newspaper columns. On
September 20, 1882, for instance, the Ward Weekly Reflex reported:
The rest of the fishing party, Mr. and Mrs. W.R. Bassett and Mr. and Mrs. Steve
Tucker, returned from Lehman's Creek, 50 miles east of this place, Saturday.
All told the party caught about 300 trout. Steve proved to be the boss
fisherman and got away with more than half the catch. They reported the
immediate vicinity of Lehman's creek to be a Paradise as compared to this
section. They left pears, peaches and other fruit ripe on the trees and before
reaching Ward drove into a snow storm.57
Later on September 7, 1900, the White Pine Daily News noted that "P.M. and Mrs. Baker,
Geo. S. Robison and wife, in company with Mr. and Mrs. C.V. Wheeler of Salt Lake City
are upon Baker creek fishing."58
During the first decade after establishment of Nevada National Forest wildlife protection and
management was virtually non-existent on the Snake Division. In 1916, for instance, it was
reported that there was "little regard for the game laws of Nevada" by the general public
as well as the state officers responsible for enforcement of the laws. Thus, forest rangers
concentrated their activities on "a campaign of education in an effort to create a better
public sentiment for game protection." Rather than arresting those who violated the law,
they reported violations to the state authorities.
While little was done to protect game, the Forest Service took steps to reduce predators
on the Snake Division. In cooperation with local stockmen trapping operations were begun
to reduce the threat of coyotes and mountain lions to livestock on the division. In
September 1919, for instance, the Murray Sheep Company hired a trapper who caught
more than 300 coyotes in the vicinity.59
56. Angel, History of Nevada, p. 649.
57. Ward Weekly Reflex, September 20, 1882.
58. White Pine Daily News, September 7, 1 900.
59. Memorandum for the District Forester, Ernest Winkler, Inspector of Grazing, October 28, 1916, 1440 -
Inspection, Year 1916, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-
333/Location No. 88830), and George C. Larson, Forest Ranger to Forest Supervisor, Ely, Nevada, March 20,
1918, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
264
According to a lengthy report on wildlife prepared by Forest Supervisor Alexander McQueen
on December 28, 1921, "general conditions affecting big game" in Nevada National Forest
were "favorable to an increase." The "big game" consisted primarily "of deer of the white
and black tail species, and mountain sheep." The conditions favoring such an increase
included:
The areas inaccessible to grazing by domestic stock assure an abundance of
feed. The depressed condition of the mining industry in this section has
reduced the number of hunters at least fifty percent during the past two years.
The change in the game laws during the past season to allow only the taking
of horned deer in open season has undoubtedly had its effect on the number
of deer killed by hunters. Considerable publicity was given to this change in the
law by the local Game Warden and Forest Officers and has met with general
approval among the local people. As yet there have been no game preserves
created on this Forest. There is, however, some agitation to have certain areas
set aside as State Game Refuges, on which no hunting will be allowed. These
areas have been selected by the Forest Officers in connection with the County
Game Warden. It has been proposed that the State Livestock Association take
up with the State Legislature at its next session the question of game policy,
including the creation of game preserves throughout the State. This policy does
not contemplate the restriction of grazing in the use of these game refuges, nor
is it believed by the County Game Warden or the Forest Officers that any
restriction of grazing should be made for the protection of game within this
forest.
Although satisfied with the existing game laws, McQueen urged that there should be "a
more uniform date for the open [hunting] season in the various counties adjoining" the
national forest. Efforts were underway to have the local county commissioners establish
a uniform date. McQueen estimated that some fifty hunters had killed about fifty deer on
the entire forest in 1921.
Destruction of predatory animals was, according to McQueen, a key concern of forest
officials. He observed "that we are getting less results in the extermination" of such
animals "than in the past few years, due principally to the reduction in the number of
hunters under the jurisdiction of the Biological Survey." A "general poisoning campaign,"
however, was being planned by the survey. The Forest Service believed that such a
campaign "would result in a very material reduction in the predatory animals on and
adjacent to the Forest."
With recent abolition of the Nevada State Game Department, forest rangers had been
appointed as deputy game wardens. In this capacity, the rangers, according to McQueen,
brought "game violators before the State authorities because it gives the impression that
violations are not only being prosecuted by Federal officers but that the local authorities are
in sympathy with this movement." In 1921, for instance, a man was prosecuted for fishing
without a license. This infraction was reported to the county game warden and the local
justice of the peace, conviction was "secured without delay, and a fine of $15.00 collected."
Game birds in Nevada National Forest consisted primarily of sage hens, grouse, and quail.
According to McQueen, "practically no hunting of these birds" occurred until mid-August,
and it was thought "that with favorable weather conditions during the hatching period, these
birds should soon increase in numbers without further protection."
The report noted that area fishermen believed the supply of fish in forest streams to be
less than fifteen years before and more than three years before. According to McQueen,
265
artificial restocking of many forest streams and a smaller number of fishermen in recent
years accounted for the increase. The average fish taken weighed about three-quarters of
a pound. It was recommended that the fish limit laws be changed from ten pounds to ten
fish per day, thus making enforcement of catch limits easier for forest rangers to monitor.
Forestry officials believed the only practical method of maintaining the supply of fish was
by artificial restocking. Among the creeks recommended for future restocking on the Snake
Division were Baker and Snake. During 1921 some 100,000 eggs of the black spotted
trout species had been secured from the White Pine County Fish Hatchery in Ely and
planted in forest streams between August 15 and August 30 with a loss of less than five
percent.60
Although actual estimates of mule deer on the Snake Division were not available, Forest
Service reports indicate that only a small population existed in the early 1920s. To
increase the size of the herd, the Lehman State Recreation Ground and Game Refuge
was established on July 20, 1923. The refuge, a cooperative venture between the Forest
Service and state wildlife officials, encompassed approximately 175,512 acres and
comprised "All that portion of the Nevada National Forest known as the Snake Division
and included within Townships 10 to 14 north, in Ranges 68 to 70 east."61 Hunting was
prohibited on the refuge in an effort to encourage the growth of the mule deer
population.62
Game and fish conditions in Nevada National Forest continued to be monitored by Forest
Service personnel during the 1920s. In January 1930 Forest Supervisor C.A. Beam
reported on the condition of big game, game birds, and fish:
Deer are practically the only big game animals on this Forest. There are some
antelope on areas adjacent to the Forest and probably a few within the Forest,
but very few. There may also be a few mountain sheep within the Forest.
Deer have been increasing right along for the past ten years or more until now
they are quite numerous. This is due largely to the enforcement of game laws
and to favorable natural conditions.
There are three State Game Preserves on this Forest. No additional ones are
necessary. There is some agitation on the part of stockmen to have the game
preserves eliminated or opened to hunting. It may be found necessary to open
them to hunting from time to time, if the deer become too numerous and do not
drift out onto adjoining range where hunting is permitted during open seasons.
It does not seem reasonable to believe that they should ever become congested
60. Annual Fish and Game Report, Nevada National Forest, December 28, 1921, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
The White Pine County Fish Hatchery had been established in Ely by E.L. Fletcher in 1912. State documents,
however, indicate that fish were being "transplanted" in county streams as early as 1 909. Biennial Report of the
Surveyor-General and State Land Register, 1909-1910, p. 68, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly,
State of Nevada, 1911, 25th Session, Vol. I; Biennial Report of the State Fish Commission, 1911-1912, pp. 6-7, in
Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1913, 26th Session, Vol. 3; and Biennial Report
of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register, 1913-1914, p. 45, State of Nevada, 1915, 27th Session, Vol. I.
61. Nevada Fish and Game Commission, Wheeler District, "Special Report-Game, South Snake Division," by
William C. Parsons, January 25, 1959, 86th Congress, Box 21, Folder 347, Howard W. Cannon Papers, Special
Collections Department, James R. Dickinson Library, University of Nevada, Las Vegas.
62. U.S. Forest Service, "Cooperative Management Plan, Lehman Deer Herd (Revised 1950)," December 8,
1950, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
266
within the preserves, as there is sufficient open range of similar character
adjoining the preserves onto which they can readily drift.
The game birds found on this Forest are sagehens, grouse, quail and doves.
They are all decreasing in numbers. This is due largely to the large number
of hunters, the length of the open seasons and the liberal bag limits. It may
also be partly due to unfavorable weather conditions during the nesting season
and to trampling by stock on nesting grounds.
To build up and maintain a normal supply of game birds, it will probably be
necessary to restrict hunting to a point where it will be possible for them to
increase in numbers and then continue such restrictions as are necessary to
maintain a supply. This could be done by closing the hunting seasons for a few
years, then make the open season short and reduce the bag limit. Restriction
of grazing on nesting grounds would aid materially, but such action would
undoubtedly be protested by the stockmen. The game preserves are not the
favorite game bird areas, so additional protection outside the preserves is
necessary to maintain a normal supply. No additional bird sanctuaries are
recommended, or restrictions in grazing.
The fish supply is remaining about stationary. This condition is due only to the
fact that continuous restocking of the streams is done by the County and
Nevada Consolidated Copper Company from their hatcheries. From 1/4 million
to 1/2 million or more fish are placed in the streams annually. These fish are
usually allowed to reach a size of from 3 to 6" before they are put into the
streams. Such continuous restocking is necessary in order to supply the extra
large demand for fishing and avoid unwelcome restrictions.
Under present practice by the County officials, an occasional stream is closed
from time to time in order to increase the number of fish or allow those in the
streams to increase in size.
All the streams on this Forest are in need of annual restocking in order to
supply the heavy demand for fishing to a reasonable extent. Approximately
160 miles are properly stocked now and 70 miles are unstocked or only partially
stocked. At least 1/2 million fish annually are required in order to keep these
streams stocked without applying undue restrictions. They should be delivered
to the White Pine County Game Warden, Ely, Nevada or to the Nevada
Consolidated Copper Company, McGill, Nevada and shipped to McGill, Nevada.
The County and the Copper Company can handle fish eggs or any size fish at
their hatcheries. They have all the facilities necessary for hatching and rearing
the fish and placing them in the streams. The County and Company can
handle the fish or eggs at any time and can place them in the streams at any
time between April first and November 30.
There are no water falls or other obstructions to fish that need consideration.
One thing that does need serious consideration though is the screening of
streams to prevent fish from going out into irrigation ditches and never returning
to the main streams. Numerous fish are lost in that way and that is the main
problem confronting the Game Warden. No satisfactory screening device has
been found which does not require constant care.
Some 41 miles of streams on the Snake Division were stocked with fish - 35 miles on
the west side and 6 miles on the east side.
267
Beam observed that White Pine County had a salaried game warden who was appointed
by the county commissioners. The game warden, who had charge of all fish and game
matters in the county, was assisted by deputies, including all forest rangers, the county
sheriff, and his deputies. In 1929 the White Pine County Game Protective Association had
been organized in Ely to advance fish and game interests in the vicinity of Nevada National
Forest.
Because of the rapid growth in the deer population on the Lehman game refuge, hunting
of such animals was reinstituted in 1930. Five years later, however, it was reported that
few deer were killed on the preserve because "they were scattered over the entire area,
as the water did not dry up, and there was more forage." Many hunters entered the
Murphy Wash area each winter as it was the wintering ground for the deer, but the forest
rangers and game wardens apparently were unable to prevent illegal out-of-season hunting.
Deer were getting scarce on the Mount Moriah Division by the mid-1 930s because of
excessive hunting. Lions were also becoming a problem in the forest as their numbers and
toll of deer were increasing. Hence the Forest Service stepped up efforts to eradicate
these animals, and in 1936 twelve lions were killed on the Snake Division.64
In 1939 a predator elimination program was begun on the Lehman game refuge. A bounty
of $30.00 was placed on mountain lions. Several hunters with lion dogs entered the area
and killed 23 lions during 1939-40.
During the early 1940s area livestock raisers began complaining that large concentrations
of deer were using the southern part of the refuge as a wintering ground. An investigation
by CM. Aldous of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service found the range in that area to be in
critical condition. Palatable shrubs were "highlined and hedged," and the deer "appeared
to be in poor flesh."
To further examine the deer herd problem a special committee was selected in March
1943. The committee, consisting of representatives of the Forest Service, Fish and Wildlife
Service, and sportsmen's and livestock associations, reconnoitered the Murphy Wash-
Johns Wash area at the south end of the Snake Division. The conclusions of this group
read in part:
Our investigations definitely show there has been a very large increase in the
number of deer generally on these areas and generally throughout Eastern
Nevada. There are several reasons for this increase.
1 . Effective elimination of predatory animals.
2. Favorable winter conditions and large fawn crops.
3. Reduction in the extent of poaching, probably brought about by more
favorable public sentiment toward game protection.
4. The existing Buck law which prohibits the killing of Doe deer.
5. Keeping refuges closed to hunting after the deer population has reached
the carrying capacity of their winter range.
63. Five Year Fish & Game Report, Nevada National Forest, January 25, 1930, by C.A. Beam, Forest
Supervisor, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
64. Report, Nevada, Annual Grazing, 1935, December 1935, and Report, Nevada, Annual Grazing, 1936,
November 1936, by Warren Taylor, Forest Ranger, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
268
Winter snows force the deer out of the higher country into lower and more
confined areas. When the number of deer increases to a point where there
is sufficient food supply on these areas of winter concentration, then there is
very great danger of destruction of the forage species on which the deer must
depend for subsistence and survival. It is the habit of deer to congregate on
their favorite areas, and no practical way has been found to remove them to
other areas where food is more plentiful. If this condition is allowed to
continue, deer in poor flesh condition and subsequent losses of both food
supply and deer can definitely be expected. The only practical and economical
method yet found is orderly removal of excess numbers of deer from these
congested areas by hunters during the hunting season.
The deer problem on the Schell Creek Game Refuge and on the Snake Division
has developed more rapidly than we had expected and has now reached a
point where the forage supply is seriously threatened with destruction because
of too many deer, and a high percentage of the deer, and particularly the
younger and smaller deer are now in poor flesh condition. The younger and
smaller deer being in poor flesh condition is one of the best indications of over
used ranges because the older and larger deer are able to reach higher on the
browse species for food, such as Mountain Mahogany and Cowania, on which
they largely depend for food during the winter months when smaller browse
plants are covered with snow. It is probable that some winter loss can be
expected this year among young deer and older bucks and does because of
malnutrition.
Upon the recommendation of the committee permits were issued to remove 200 does
during the 1943 hunt to help alleviate the problem.65
By 1944-45 the growing deer herd on the Snake Division was causing alarm to Forest
Service officials. The heavy concentration of deer was exacerbating the already critical
condition of the range resulting from overgrazing. The deer were "keeping the browse and
weed types pretty well highlined and grubbed." It was estimated that deer were using the
following percentages of plant life on the range: stipa (20%); dandelion (30%); penstaman
(40%); erigoron (20%); Big Sage (70%); snowberry (50%); ribes (20%); and tetrademia
(50%).
To alleviate this problem Forest Service officials began working with the White Pine
Sportsmen's Association to promote hunting on the Snake Division. Because of the relative
inaccessibility of the region it was decided to establish horse camps in Decathon, Murphy
Wash, and Baker Creek canyons to help hunters remove deer from the area during the fall
hunting seasons.66
The continuing deer herd problem on the Snake Division led Forest Service officials to
initiate a "Cooperative Management Plan" in December 1946. The plan was to be a
cooperative venture with sportsmen, livestock raisers, and concerned state and federal
65. Cooperative Management Plan, Lehman Deer Herd (Revised 1950), December 8, 1950, and A.F. Briggs,
Forest Supervisor to the Honorable Board of County Commissioners, April 3, 1943, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
66. Report on Inspection - Baker District, A.E. Briggs, Forest Supervisor, August 18, 1944, 1440 - Inspection,
Baker R.D., and Memorandum for Files, A.E. Briggs, 1440 - Inspection, LFI - Range - South End, Snake Division,
RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61 -333/Location No. 88829).
269
agencies. Its purpose was "to produce the maximum numbers of deer on a sustained
yield basis" consistent "with other uses of the forest."
The plan was updated and revised in December 1950. It was conservatively estimated at
that time that there were 2,000 mule deer, known collectively as the Lehman deer herd, on
the Snake Division. The plan detailed the problems relating to the growing Lehman deer
herd:
The summer range occupied by the deer herd is located mainly within the
Snake Division of the Baker Ranger District. Deer range on the intermediate
and higher elevations which are made up of timber, aspen, browse, and small
meadow areas of vegetation. Most of these summer ranges are in the poor
or fair condition classes and in general show a slight upward trend. Much of
this higher range land can not be used by domestic livestock because of the
rough terrain, timber, or lack of sufficient stock water. The summer range is
generally not considered to be overgrazed by deer. There are some local
areas, however, that definitely show excessive deer use, two of which are
Lehman Creek Basin and the west facing slope of Decathon Canyon below
Mustang Spring. There is some improvement in the Lehman Creek Basin area.
Deer use the lower fringes of the area during the winter months with the main
body of the herd occupying the Murphy Wash, John's Hollow, and Big Springs
Wash areas. Bureau of Land Management lands adjacent to the forest also
receive very excessive deer use, particularly in the Trough Mountain area. The
areas of heaviest deer concentration show positive evidence of over use of
bitter brush, cliff rose, mountain mahogany, and sagebrush which forms the bulk
of the deer diet. . . . The winter range is the limiting factor for this deer herd.
The plan described the extent and nature of the conflict between game and livestock
interests on the Snake Division. Among other things the report stated:
At the present time there is some slight conflict between domestic livestock
and deer in the Lehman Herd. The actual competition for feed on the forest
during the established grazing season is not great and any problems that might
exist will be solved when the Lehman Deer Herd is reduced to what the winter
range will support. As has been stated before, our limiting factor is the winter
range. In the past, summer concentrations of deer have been observed in
Lehman Creek Basin, Decathon Canyon below Mustang Spring, and in Granite
Basin in Snake Creek. Both Granite Basin and Lehman Creek Basin are
improving. In the winter range area, outside the refuge and near Trough
Mountain, all of the edible shrubs are hedged and highlined, in some places to
a height of about seven feet.
No areas have been closed to livestock for big game use and no such action
is anticipated. The aim will be to reduce the animals responsible for the range
damage down to what the range will support on a sustained yield basis.
The report also commented on livestock uses outside the national forest boundaries which
affected the deer. It stated:
The winter deer range outside the refuge is used by two permittees. Swallow
Bros, use the Murphy Wash-John's Hollow unit and the Dearden Bros, use the
area from John's Hollow east to and including the Chokecherry Unit. During the
past four years cattle exclusively have been using this outside range. It is
probable that use by domestic livestock in former times was responsible for
270
some range depletion observed on this area. At the present time there is not
much cattle use on the deer winter range area but the range is still being very
severely over used by deer.
The plan noted that there had been a steady increase in the number of hunters on the
Snake Division during the postwar years. During 1949, for instance, it was estimated that
the 1 ,000 hunters on the division were "probably four times as many" as those of the mid-
1940s. That year a total of 382 deer were killed. Thus, forestry officials concluded that
wildlife was becoming more important to the public. White Pine County realized
considerable revenue from the sale of hunting licenses, especially from non-resident
hunters, and local merchants profited from selling hunting supplies.
The document recommended that the deer herd should be reduced until there was no
further range damage by the deer. After the range was "properly stocked" and the range
improved, the size of the herd could be increased proportionately. With the deer herd
"reduced to the proper size and with reasonably good predator control," it was estimated
that approximately 25 percent of the herd would be available for removal by hunters
annually.
The plan provided that a deer census be taken each spring. In addition to counting the
deer, observations would be made of the condition of the range and animals and
information obtained on the ratio of fawns to adults. Based on this census
recommendations would be made on the numbers of deer to be removed in any given year.
Forest Service officials admitted that past efforts to reduce the deer herd through hunting
had been unsuccessful. In this respect the plan stated:
In the past we have tried special "doe hunts" in addition to the regular "buck"
season. We have tried special "doe hunts" in addition to hunts for "either sex."
This year we limited the hunt to "either sex" but extended the season two
weeks longer than for any other area in the county. To date none of these
methods have produced the desired results, although we may have had some
success this past season by the extended length of time. We have encouraged
local people to set up hunting camps and provide horses and guide service for
hunters. These camps have only had fair success for the past two seasons.
Despite the lack of success in these efforts, however, the plan noted:
It is felt that with an extended season such as we had in 1950, a regular "either
sex" hunt, normal weather which will force the majority of the deer to the south
end of the mountain during late October, and some good publicity, we should
be able to reduce the size of this deer herd.
Accordingly, the Forest Service intended to correlate predator control with other phases of
the deer herd management plan to insure that the "numbers of predators are in balance
with numbers of deer and hunters."67
The "Cooperative Management Plan" served as the means to reduce the Lehman deer herd
by nearly one-half during the 1950s. The Nevada Fish and Game Commission reported
on the results of the plan in 1959:
67. Cooperative Management Plan, Lehman Deer Herd (Revised 1950), Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
271
The available information indicates that the deer herd is "resident" year-around
in the South Snake Division and the Lime Hills with the exception of limited
numbers of migratory deer from other areas. In the summer months, deer are
normally found at elevations of 8,000 feet or more throughout the entire range,
and in the winter months the distribution is limited, in the main, to the 6,000-
to 8,000-foot belt surrounding the mountain range. . . . When winters are mild,
a considerable amount of range is available, however, with increased depth of
snow, the herd is concentrated into a relatively narrow belt around the base of
the range. The large concentration of deer formerly observed in the Murphy
Wash-Big Springs Wash in late November and December, due to open winters
during the past 2 or 3 years, have not been seen in great abundance until
January.
From 1944 through 1955, an average of 68 to 82 percent of the available
browse production was consumed by deer. These percentages were
considerably in excess of the tolerance limits of the plants concerned.
The orderly harvest of deer has been the primary tool used by the Nevada Fish
and Game Commission to maintain the herd within the carrying capacity of the
range. When regular season hunter pressure provided insufficient harvest to
maintain this balance in the Snake Range, special tag quotas and extended or
late seasons were recommended. In 1943, for example, 200 anterless permits
were issued and since that time approximately 3,000 special permits have been
made available for this area. The last special hunt of 500 either sex tags was
in 1955 during the period of October 9 through December 11. Late hunts were
emergency measures recommended only when the major portion of the range
was in jeopardy and it became necessary to reduce the total herd.
During the period of t948-58, an average of 328 deer annually were reported
harvested by an average of 546 hunters in the South Snake Range. . . .
However, based on the present estimated size of the deer herd, the South
Snake Range has a potential to support a hunting pressure of 800 persons
each year and provide a reasonable degree of hunter success.
Approximately 15 percent of the regular season deer harvest in White Pine
County during the last 10 years has been made in the South Snake Division
of the Humboldt National Forest. However, special hunts, whenever used, have
increased this percentage. Usually, 60 percent of the hunters are successful in
the South Snake Range, thus the number of deer killed doesn't represent total
hunter use of the area. For example, an estimated 445 hunters harvested 267
deer during 1958.68
The deer population continued to decline during the 1960s, bottoming out in 1965 and
1966. During the 1970s the deer herd numbers fluctuated, depending on weather and
range conditions and hunting pressure. In 1979 the Forest Service and Nevada
68. 1959 Hearings, pp. 140-41. Also see L.A. Dremolski, Forest Supervisor to Ranger Fluckiger, August 24,
1954, 1440 - Inspection, 1954 Extra Reports, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno
(Accession No. 61-333/Location No. 88830), and Snake Range, National Forest Features in Nevada, An Educational
Series, 1960, in Nevada Outdoor Recreation Association Papers, Nevada Historical Society, Reno.
272
Department of Wildlife developed a new program to manage and improve fish and wildlife
habitats on the national forests in Nevada.69
While much of the attention of Forest Service wildlife management policies focused on
problems associated with the Lehman deer herd, fishing on the Snake Division also
received consideration. By the late 1950s it was reported that lake fishing on the division
was "limited to the recovery by anglers of legal-sized fish planted each season in some of
the high mountain lakes." The two bodies of water that were stocked annually were Baker
and Johnson lakes. These lakes were "so shallow" that fish could not "survive the winters."
Attempts to stock Stella Lake were unsuccessful because of the thin atmosphere at that
elevation. Stream fishing was produced by annual stocking of Strawberry, Lehman, Baker,
and Snake creeks with trout from the State Fish and Game Hatchery along Snake Creek,
a rearing pond facility built during the late 1 940s just outside the forest boundary that was
used to stock all fishable waters in White Pine County. In 1957 approximately 1,000
pounds of "catch able-size fish" were released in these streams and lakes. On the west
side of the Snake Range it had been found that "a native and apparently uncontaminated
strain of Utah Cutthroat persists in Pine and Ridge creeks." Thus, the Nevada State Fish
and Game Commission had closed the streams to fishing to protect that "relict
subspecies."70
A special report on fisheries on the Snake Division by the Nevada Fish and Game
Commission in January 1959 found that sport fishing in the area had increased during the
previous decade. All indications pointed to the continued heavy recreational use of the two
"high mountain lakes" and the eight "fishable streams" in the division. Because of the
"limited natural reproduction of trout in the cold mountain streams and lakes plus the heavy
angler use," it had been "necessary to supplement the wild trout population with reared
trout in order to maintain a satisfactory level of fishermen success."
Of the 259.3 miles of fishable streams in White Pine County, some 57.4 miles were located
in the Snake Division. These streams were:
Stream Fishable Length
Strawberry Creek 4.5 miles
Lehman Creek 8.0 miles
Baker Creek and Tributaries 1 1 .5 miles
Snake Creek and Tributaries 14.4 miles
Big Wash and South Fork 10.0 miles
Willard Creek 3.0 miles
Shingle Creek 4.0 miles
Williams Creek 2.0 miles
57.4 miles
69. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region, in cooperation with Nevada
Department of Wildlife, A Program to Manage and Improve Fish and Wildlife Habitats on the National Forests in
Nevada, 1979, p. 11.
70. U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service, Region Four, "Field Investigation Report, Lehman
Caves - Wheeler Peak, Portion of Southern Section of Snake Range, White Pine County, Nevada, October 13 to
17, 1958, and October 29 to November 13, 1958," February 1959, p. 35, and Snake Range, National Forest
Features in Nevada, An Educational Series, 1960, in Nevada Outdoor Recreation Association Papers, Nevada
Historical Society, Reno. Since reports by early explorers and government surveyors indicate that cutthroat trout
were not found on the west side of the Snake Range, it is possible that this species migrated to the Spring Valley
side of the mountains via the Osceola ditches. Telephone interview with Kathy A. Kaiser (former Forest Service
employee), Osceola, Nevada, September 17, 1988.
273
Following the recommendations of a stream and lake survey conducted by the Nevada Fish
and Game Commission, it was found that some 4,209 pounds of reared trout should be
stocked annually in Snake Division waters "to meet the demand of the present angler
usage taking into consideration the stream potentials." This poundage represented some
23.8 percent of the total poundage recommended for all waters of White Pine County.
This percentage was more than double that (10.7 percent) stocked in Snake Division
streams in 1953 when only one lake and four streams had been stocked - Johnson Lake
and Baker, Lehman, Snake, and Strawberry creeks.
Among the streams receiving the heaviest angler pressure in White Pine County during the
late 1950s were Baker, Lehman, and Snake creeks. Snake Division waters received nearly
20 percent of the angler pressure in the county. The waters and the amount of angler
usage they received were:
Waters Angler Usage (Days)
Strawberry Creek
47
Lehman Creek
942
Baker Creek and Tributaries
1,479
Snake Creek and Tributaries
1,291
Big Wash and South Fork
9
Johnson Lake
94
3,862
Pine and Ridge creeks on the west side of the Snake Division remained closed to fishing
"to preserve the small population of a pure strain of cutthroat trout." Anticipated use of
these trout for initial stocking of streams necessitated that full protection be afforded these
waters. It was noted that this strain of cutthroat tended to remain in the higher stream
elevations during periods of run-off when compared with other species.71
Fishing on the Snake Division continued to be a major focus of Forest Service wildlife
management in cooperation with the Nevada Fish and Game Commission. In 1967-68, for
instance, Forest Service officials reported that Lehman and Baker creeks had good fishing
and were stocked regularly during the summers. Snake Creek, which was stocked in
summer, had good fishing where it was not diverted for irrigation purposes. Strawberry
Creek had fair fishing for small fish and was not stocked as heavily as the other streams.
Stella and Teresa lakes had no fishing, but plans were formulated for stocking catchables
in both bodies of water on a "put and take" basis during the summer of 1 968. Baker Lake,
which was stocked with cutthroat trout, normally supported fish with good results being
reported. Johnson Lake supported fish and afforded fair fishing for pan size fish.72
71. "Special Report - Fisheries, South Snake Division," Nevada Fish and Game Commission, Wheeler District,
by William O. Parsons, January 25, 1959, 86th Congress, Box 21, Folder 347, Cannon Papers, University of
Nevada, Las Vegas.
72. "Reference Text For Preparation ot Forest Recreation Maps and Information Brochures," [1967-68], Historical
Files, USFS, Elko. On February 19, 1962, a special use permit was let to the Snake Creek Irrigation Company
to install a 3.2-mile concrete pipeline through the central portion of Snake Creek as a water conservation and
irrigation measure. Construction of the pipeline resulted in the loss of approximately one mile of fishable water, but
it created a more constant and dependable water supply for the stream below which had been subject to periodic
flooding. During subsequent years the Forest Service cooperated with the Nevada Fish and Game Department in
a stream habitat improvement project to help recover the quality of the fishery in the vicinity of the pipeline. Special
Uses, Snake Creek Irrigation Company, March 21, 1978, Water Transmission, Great Basin National Park General
Management Planning Team Files, Denver Service Center.
274
In 1979 the Forest Service began a program to transplant Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep
on the Snake and Mount Moriah divisions. Eight bighorn were released on the Snake
Division in May 1979 and twelve more in March 1980. All of the sheep were captured in
Rocky Mountain National park in Colorado. The 1979 sheep were all marked with a blue
plastic eartag, and two ewes were fitted with radio collars. The 1980 sheep were marked
with red eartags, and three ewes were fitted with radios. During the next several years
individual sheep were sighted in the Hub Mine Basin area and in the high county between
Wheeler Peak and Mount Washington.73
U.S. FOREST SERVICE RECREATIONAL DEVELOPMENT POLICIES IN THE
SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE
The Snake Mountains have been used by local residents of central eastern Nevada for
fishing and camping trips since the 1880s. One of the earliest camping trips in the range
to be noted in White Pine County newspapers was that of ten people in August 1 904. The
Ely-based White Pine Daily News reported:
Jos. Newman and wife, Mrs. G.F. Newman and daughter, Misses Any and
Dorothy Parker, Mrs. A.J. Millick, Ernest and Albert Millick and Steve Baker,
left Saturday for a camping trip on Cleveland creek, Osceola and Willard creek.74
By the early 1 920s the Forest Service was taking steps to improve the recreational aspects
of the Lehman Caves-Wheeler Peak area. In October 1922, for instance, Cada C. Boak,
who played a significant role in the campaign to have Lehman Caves designated a national
monument that year, noted:
A good auto road is completed to the caves, where is found a beautiful park
and pleasant camping grounds. Good trout fishing is to be had and a saddle
trail is being built to the summit of Mount Wheeler . . . via the rim of its
Castellated Gorge, whose vari-colored perpendicular walls drop to a depth of
2,500 feet, which, with its perpetual glacier combine to make up as bold, rugged
and daring a piece of Alpine scenery as is to be found anywhere in the west.75
By the mid-1 920s the Forest Service established the rudiments of a campground along
Lehman Creek in Lehman Canyon several miles above the caves. When C.N. Woods,
assistant district forester, visited the Lehman Creek campground in the fall of 1926, he
found it to be very "desirable." There were four tables and two unpainted toilets at the
campground. Woods urged that signs be installed directing visitors at the cave to the
campground as the two recreation areas were two or three miles apart, signs relating to
garbage and refuse disposal, as well as fireplaces, were needed at the campground.
73. Sanders to Ganzert, [1985], Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
74. White Pine Daily News, August 11, 1904.
75. Cada C. Boak, "Lehman Caves:- The Wonder Under World," October 17, 1922, p. 13, Special Collections
Department, University Library, University of Nevada, Reno.
76. Memorandum for the District Forester, C.N. Woods, Assistant District Forester, October 28, 1926, 1440
- Inspection, Year 1926, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-
333/Location No. 88830). Grazing was prohibited in the campground.
275
In November 1927 Associate Range Examiner Arnold R. Standing made proposals to
increase recreational possibilities on the Snake Division. Among other items, he urged
that "improvement and, in places, construction of the trail from the Lehman Creek camp
ground to the top of Mount Jeff. Davis" be undertaken. In the near future he felt this
would "very probably be a needed improvement to fully develop the Lehman Cave area for
recreational purposes." Horses could be rented at the cave, and a "hike or ride to the
lakes in Lehman Canyon, and to Mount Jeff. Davis" might "become an important
recreational attraction." Standing also noted that there were unpainted "tables at the camp
ground on Baker Creek."
A small stream at the Lehman Creek campground had "a nasty taste" and had caused
sickness to those drinking from it. The water raised "in marshy ground." Thus, Standing
urged that the water be analyzed, and, if found unsanitary, the Forest Service should "place
a sign near the creek telling campers not to use the water but to get water from the main
creek."77
During the 1930s the Forest Service devoted increasing attention to recreational
development on the Snake Division. In February 1933, for instance, Forest Supervisor
C.J. Olsen observed:
Considerably more attention will be necessary to recreational use. There are
some wonderful camp sites in Baker Creek and Lehman Creek and a number
of additional recreational improvements are necessary in order to make the
areas of highest value to the public and in order for us to be able to keep
them clean and minimize fire hazard.78
During 1934 the State of Nevada established a Transient Relief Camp along Lehman Creek
some five miles above Lehman Caves and the Civilian Conservation Corps set up a "stub
camp" at Burbank near Preuss Lake. These two camps supplied laborers to the Forest
Service to develop a road up Lehman Canyon toward Stella Lake and from there a trail to
the summit of Wheeler Peak and to improve and enlarge camping facilities along Lehman,
Baker, and Snake creeks. In August 1937 it was reported that the Lehman Creek camp
was "shaping up very well and all phases of the job have the earmarks of pretty good
workmanship." The area was "well posted with recreation signs" and materials had been
ordered for three fountains. While details of the campground improvements were sketchy,
fireplaces, tables, toilets, and camp sites apparently were laid out according to a systematic
design for the first time.
To accommodate the growing visitation to the Snake Division, the Forest Service gave
increasing attention to road maintenance during the late 1930s. The three roads to receive
attention were those along Baker, Lehman, and Snake creeks.79
77. Memorandum for the District Forester, Arnold R. Standing, Associate Range Examiner, November 8, 1927,
1440 - Inspection, Year 1927, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No.
61-333/Location No. 88830).
78. Memorandum, C.J. Olsen, Forest Supervisor, February 11, 1933, 1440 - Inspection, Year 1933, RG 95,
National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No. 88830).
79. A.E. Briggs, Assistant Forest Supervisor to Forest Supervisor, August 18, 1937, 1440 - Inspection, Year
1937, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No.
88830). Also see C.J. Olsen, Forest Supervisor to P.P. Patraw, Superintendent, Zion & Bryce Canyon National
Parks, April 26, 1934, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park, and Personal interview with Sunny Roberts, Baker,
Nevada, September 17, 1988.
276
The recreational opportunities of the Lehman Caves-Wheeler Peak area were described in
Nevada: A Guide to the Silver State compiled by workers of the Writer's Program of the
Work Projects Administration in 1940. The study stated that U.S. Highway 6 crossed the
Utah-Nevada boundary some 94 miles west of Delta, Utah, and proceeded "southwest
toward mountains in eastern divisions of the Nevada National Forest." After traveling 11.1
miles west of the state boundary there was a junction with a "graded dirt road." From the
junction travelers were to turn
Left on this road to BAKER (gasoline), 1.6 m.; R. (straight ahead) here 3 m. on
a Forest Service road to small STELLA LAKE. . . . Cars are parked here near
a marked trail that circles R. around the lake and climbs steeply for about 8 m.
(4 hrs.) to the summit of MOUNT WHEELER. . . . The trail to the summit rises
rapidly through three life zones of plant and animal life. In summer sections of
the trail are almost obscured by Indian paint brush, lupines, and other bright
blooms.
At Baker the main side road turns R. to LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL
MONUMENT . . . 7.7 m. . . . The caverns, amid pine, spruce, fir, juniper, and
mountain mahogany, are in limestone, among high peaks and deep glaciated
canyons of the Snake Range. A large variety of birds nest near the streams
and fishing and game hunting are popular sports in the region for which this is
a base.
The road to the caves continues northward to a junction with the Forest Service
road up Mount Wheeler.80
Preparatory to anticipated post-World War II recreational demands numerous improvements
were made to the Lehman Creek campground during the summer of 1945. For the first
time there were references to lower and upper campgrounds. The road leading to the lower
campground had been badly washed as a result of a plugged rock culvert. The rock
culvert was replaced with an 18-inch by 14-foot steel culvert, and new surfacing material
was hauled in to "smooth up" the road. The water system pipeline in the lower
campground, which had been seriously damaged by frost in 1943-44, was replaced. The
lid on the head box to the Lehman campground water system was repaired and locked,
and a screen was placed over the intake pipe to prevent small particles from entering the
pipeline and plugging the fountains. A new garbage pit was dug, fire signs were replaced,
and directional signs were installed. A new steel culvert was constructed on the road near
the entrance to the upper campground to provide for drainage and keep the road dry and
passable. The large campground sign at the junction of Garrison and Lehman Caves
roads was reoiled and relettered.81
The recreational opportunities in the Lehman Caves-Wheeler Peak area received growing
publicity during the postwar years in various periodicals as the State of Nevada sought to
advertise the distinctive qualities of the region to the pleasure-oriented public. In
September 1 947, for instance, Nevada Magazine carried the following piece describing the
area surrounding Lehman Caves National Monument:
Recent appropriation of the state highway board for improvement of the road to
Lehman caves and highway six to the state line is expected to be a landmark
80. Writer's Program of the Works Projects Administration, Nevada: A Guide to the Silver State, pp. 241-
42.
81. Memorandum for Files, A.E. Briggs, July 11, 1945, 1440 - Inspection, LFI - Baker R.D., RG 95, National
Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No. 88829).
277
in the monument's history. Previously the foot of the mountain was reached
only by driving over rutted and rock dirt roads for six miles from Baker, Nevada,
and from Ely, across several miles of unimproved Highway six.
Territory surrounding the monument, which itself takes in one square mile of
federally owned land, proves a fisherman's paradise.
Wild life is profuse with herds of deer. . . . Mountain lions are occasionally
seen, as are coyotes and rabbits, while owls, blue birds, robins, jays, fly-
catchers, hawks, and water ouzels are among those to be found. Botanically
the district supports a great variety of wild flowers in season, and forests of
pine, spruce, fir and mahogany line the slopes.
An interesting trip is to the top of Wheeler. . . . Capping the towering Eastern
Nevada mountain is a glacial lake called Stella.
The lake and peak of the mountain, higher up, may be reached either through
an overnight climb, or horses may be obtained at some of the ranches in the
valley to use for making the ascent.82
During the late 1940s the Forest Service paid increasing attention to improvement of the
recreational potential of the Snake Division. In 1948 Forest Supervisor J.M. Herbert noted
that when recreational use of the Lehman and Baker creek areas increased as a result of
the oiling of the Lehman Caves road and U.S. Highway No. 6, a part-time attendant would
be hired to oversee those developments. The Baker Creek drainage, a popular fishing spot
which the Forest Service felt had some of the finest scenery in the forest, was viewed as
an area that would soon be intensively used by visitors. Hence it was important that the
area "be classified by a recreational planner" before any major development was
undertaken. As of the summer of 1948 only a few tables and one toilet were in place.
During the summer of 1947 some tables and toilets were installed at "popular spots" along
Snake Creek, a stream that was used largely by people from Garrison and Baker. The
Forest Service viewed this area as having potential for a group picnic area to accommodate
local needs.
Development and maintenance of roads and trails on the Snake Division also received
increasing attention by the Forest Service during the postwar years. In July 1948, for
instance, Forest Supervisor Herbert reported that the "Lehman Caves forest highway #20
should now be modified because the State has constructed the grade and will oil this
summer a completely new route from Baker to the Caves." Accordingly, the road from the
cave to the campground needed improvement, and the "half mile of development road
between the camp and picnic area" required graveling. The Baker Creek Road, which had
been partially relocated in 1947 to eliminate two bridges, needed "graveling badly because
of rocks in [the] road bed which are more frequent than dirt." The spur road to the cave
needed "a new approach at the Caves," because this "cut-off" would soon receive
considerable use. While the Snake Creek Road was "in good shape after heavy
maintenance" in 1947, its cattle guards should be "painted white" and "tiger eye reflectors"
should be installed. The Baker Creek Trail had been maintained as far as the Deishman
Cabin in 1947. Further attention, however, was to be given to cross ditching for drainage,
blazing with standard blaze, and trail marking through openings either with rock monuments
or posts. Where it was necessary to relocate the trail around snow slide areas, steps
should be taken to watch the grade and alignment to eliminate "steep pitches" and "kinks."
Rather than lower the trail standard, crews "should go to extra work of clearing through
82. Maurya Wogan, "Subterranean Wonderland," Nevada Magazine, III (September 1947), 39-40.
278
snow slide debris." The trail from the Deishman Cabin to the lake needed marking and
relocating, because it was "impossible to find where it is supposed to go." The Shoshone
Trail from Baker Creek to the Snake Creek divide was in "fair shape and maintenance" but
needed drainage and marking work.83
The Forest Service continued to improve the camping facilities along Lehman, Baker, and
Snake creeks during the early 1950s. By 1954 the Lehman Creek campground had:
6 pit toilets
18 stoves
20 tables
3 swings
1 teeter
26 garbage cans
3 footbridges
1 amphitheater
The campground had a water system extending 930 feet, which was enclosed by 1/8 mile
of fencing. The less developed Baker and Snake creek campgrounds had a combined total
of fifteen tables and fifteen garbage cans.84
A report filed by Forest Supervisor L.A. Dremolski in July 1954 indicated that the Lehman,
Baker, Snake, and Strawberry creek areas were "becoming increasingly popular each
season as recreation areas." The creeks were "extremely popular due to their permanent
streams, fishing, scenic beauty and retreat from the valley heat." The "lakes and alpine
scenery at the heads of these drainages" probably exceeded "anything in the State of
Nevada." In addition, some of the best deer hunting in eastern Nevada could be found on
the south end of the Snake Division. Room for future recreational development was
"great," but existing fund limitations made it "necessary that we attempt to maintain our
present recreation improvements to the highest standard possible and keep the areas clean
as best we can." Garbage disposal was a significant problem and was being handled by
a local Boy Scout group.
Recreational use of the Nevada National Forest "increased tremendously during the mid-
1950s.86 This increase placed added pressure on the limited recreational facilities of the
forest and induced the Forest Service to commence further development of recreation
areas. In September 1955, for instance, fourteen sites were established at Lehman Creek
campground to accommodate trailers, and the number of camping sites in the campground
was increased to 31. 87 This increase in the number of camping sites could not keep up
83. J.M. Herbert, Forest Supervisor to Library, July 1, 1948, 1440 - Inspection, LFI - Baker R.D., RG 95,
National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No. 88829).
84. Nevada National forest, Campground Maintenance Plan, 1954, O - Plans - Nevada, Maintenance - CY
1954, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61 B-320/Location No.
88817).
85. L.A. Dremolski, Forest Supervisor to Ranger Fluckiger, August 24, 1954, 1440 - Inspection, 1954 Extra
Reports, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No.
88830).
86. Salt Lake Tribune, April 7, 1957.
87. Nevada Forest, Trip and Job Plan, Baker D-2 Ranger District, September 1955, O - Plans - Nevada,
Current Work Trip & Job Plans, D-2, CY 1955 & 1956, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San
Bruno (Accession No. 61B-320/Location No. 88817).
279
with demand, however, because there were often as many as 100 parties requesting
camping space on summer weekends.
The growing number of tourists to the Lehman Creek-Baker Creek-Lehman Caves area led
to Forest Service plans for extensive tourist development. In July 1956 plans were made
for a $50,000 service station, store, coffee shop, and twelve cabin complex just below the
Lehman Caves National Monument boundary. The complex, which included plans for
stables to house horses for hire, was to be located approximately one-half mile below the
cave entrance "on the north side of the surfaced highway to the caves, between the two
cattleguards, one marking the boundary of the national forest and the other the boundary
of the national monument." The plans called for a twenty-year lease to be granted to H.K.
Anderson of St. George, Utah, who would build the facilities. Although the complex was
never built, the plans for its construction were indicative of Forest Service intentions to
accommodate tourists.88
To insure the long-range recreational use of the Lehman Creek area Public Land Order
1355 was issued on November 5, 1956. This order provided that the 40-acre "Lehman
Creek Recreational area" be "withdrawn from all forms of appropriation under the public-
land laws, including the mining but not the mineral-leasing laws" and reserved for the use
of the Forest Service as a recreational area.89
Several projects were undertaken in 1957 to improve recreation prospects on the Snake
Division. A 2-1/2-mile fence was constructed on the divide between the Baker Creek and
Lehman Creek drainages to keep livestock on the Snake Creek allotment out of Lehman
Caves National Monument and the Forest Service's Lehman Creek campground and trailer
camp. The National Park Service cooperated by furnishing $450 worth of materials for the
project. The trail from the Lehman Creek campground to Stella Lake was reconstructed
as were three miles of the Baker Creek Trail. The Baker Creek Road was reconstructed
from the state highway below Lehman Caves National Monument to Baker, thus moving the
road off National Park Service land and on to Forest Service ground. The project consisted
of 5/8 mile of new graded gravel road construction.90
During the winter of 1958-59 several ski organizations from Ely visited the mountains within
a 100-mile radius of the town in search of a suitable site for development of a new ski
resort. As a result it was determined that Bald Mountain, some two miles north of Wheeler
Peak, offered the finest potential for a future winter sports facility. Among facilities planned
for the development were construction of seven ski runs, a rope tow or slip lift to Wheeler
Peak, a ski lodge and ancillary support structures, and a two-lane, paved access road from
U.S. 6-50 to the resort. The projected development was never constructed, however,
because of public opposition headed by conservation groups, difficulties in finance and
acquisition, Forest Service designation of the area as Wheeler Peak Scenic Area in 1959,
and continuing efforts by various groups to establish a national park in the Snake Range.91
88. Unidentified newspaper clipping, July 26, 1956, Notebook - "HNF History - Appendix," Historical Files,
USFS, Elko.
89. "Title 43 - Public Lands: Interior, Public Land Order 1355," November 5, 1956, in Federal Register,
November 9, 1956.
90. L.A. Dremolski, Forest Supervisor to Regional Forester, November 8, 1957, Notebook - "HNF History,
Information & Education," Historical Files, USFS, Elko.
91. Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National Park," Part II, pp. 707-17.
280
By the late 1950s the number of tourists visiting the Snake Division had grown to 50,000
annually. Thus, public demand for expansion of recreation facilities and opportunities on
the Snake Division led the Forest Service to initiate a major development program in the
Wheeler Peak area in 1959. The development was made possible by "Operations
Outdoors," a Forest Service program to expand national forest recreational resources
throughout the United States. The development in the Wheeler Peak area was also
designed in part as an effort to forestall the growing interest for establishment of a national
park in that vicinity.
As part of the development program a 28,000-acre section of the Snake Division was
designated the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area on February 13, 1959. The designated area
extended from Buck Mountain, six miles north of Wheeler Peak, to Granite Peak on the
south and included the upper portions of Lehman, Baker, and Snake creeks, and Big Wash
canyon on the east side of the crest of the range. The designation and development of
this area was planned around three principal objectives:
1. Provide adequate protection of the scenic attractions, geologic values, and flora and
fauna of the area.
2. Provide facilities to meet the needs of increasing use by the public for recreation
purposes.
3. Intensify multiple use and sustained yield management of the forage wildlife, and other
resources.92
Forest Service publications noted that the area contained a variety of scenic features.
These were:
Wheeler Peak, 13,063 feet high, with a permanent ice field; Baker and Snake
Creeks; the upper parts of Lehman Creek; and Big Wash Canyon. Within the
area are some of the world's largest mountain mahogany trees, Stella, Baker,
and Johnson Lakes, two natural rock arches, and a stand of extremely ancient
bristlecone pine.
Forest Service officials were careful to point out that multiple-use forestry, including grazing,
hunting, fishing, and mining, would continue in the scenic area. Resorts, cabin camps,
summer homes, and commercial enterprises, however, would be permitted only in locations
adjacent to the scenic area.93
Plans for the initial phase of the new recreation development program called for a two-
way road up Lehman Canyon to Stella Lake, camping and picnic facilities near the lake,
and a trail to the glacieret on Wheeler Peak. Rustic signs would be installed directing
tourists to important features in the area. New campgrounds would be constructed on
lower Baker Creek to accommodate the growing number of tourists. Additional
campgrounds were also planned for Snake Creek and Big Wash Canyon. The 1959 portion
92. Earlier in September 1955, Forest Supervisor L.A. Dremolski had recommended that a 4,200-acre Glacier
Scenic Area be established on the east side of Wheeler Peak to include the ice field and cirque, three alpine
lakes, and surrounding timber lands. Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National Park," Part II, pp. 702-03.
93. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region, Humboldt National Forest, 1959.
On January 6, 1941, Forest Ranger S.D. Warner measured a mahogany tree in Lehman Creek campground which
Forest Service research indicated was the world's largest mountain mahogany on record. Its circumference at one-
half foot above ground was 41 inches. The tree had a crown spread of 67 feet and a height of 24 feet.
281
of the program included trail improvement work and recreation planning on lower Baker
Creek and a survey of the Lehman Creek road preparatory to new construction in I960.94
The implementation of Forest Service plans for the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area took nearly
a decade to complete. A Forest Service brochure printed in 1964 indicated that some
progress had been made in improving campground facilities in the scenic area. The upper
Lehman Creek campground had 33 family camping sites in addition to picnic facilities, while
the Lehman Creek trailer camp had 12 family camping units. The Baker Creek
campground had 17 family camping units and additional picnic facilities, while the Snake
Creek campground had 8 relatively undeveloped sites without drinking water.95
In 1965 the Forest Service prepared an accomplishment report regarding progress on the
development of the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area. The report described the planned and
completed developments to date:
Public Camp
Family Units
House Trailer Units
Planned Expansion
Stella Lake
Roads
Lehman Creek to Stella Lake
Section of road under
Current Contract
Final Road Construction
Contract - Summer 1965. 3.94 mi.
Stella Lake Campground
Road Construction -
Summer 1965. 1.20 mi.
Bituminous-surfaced
Campground Roads 4.59 mi. 4.59 mi.
Trails
Improve for foot & horse travel 20.00 mi. 12.00 mi.
Planned
Accomplished
120
61
12
15
37
12
13.75 mi.
6.95 mi.
2.86 mi.
2.86 mi.
94. Ely Daily Times, February 13, 1959, Nevada State Journal, February 15, 1959, and Reno Evening Gazette,
April 29, 1959. On August 31, 1959, a helicopter crashed near the top of Wheeler Peak as Forest Service officials
were making a reconnaissance looking toward possible construction of the scenic road up Lehman Creek Canyon
to Stella Lake. Ely Daily Times, September 1 , 1 959.
95. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region, National Forest Recreation in
Nevada, [1964], n.p.
282
New Construction:
Stella Lake to Snowfield
Pine Grove Nature Trail
Icefield-Baker Lake Trail
3.5 mi.
3.5 mi.
12.0 mi.
Sians
Informational & Directional Signs
26 each
Structures
Informational Shelter
1 each
3.5 mi.
18
0
96
Pressure from conservation and preservation groups caused the Forest Service to halt
construction of the road to Stella Lake in August 1965. These organizations opposed
building of the road to the lake and Forest Service plans to lay out campgrounds near its
shores because of the potential harm to the fragile ecology of the area. After further study
the Forest Service announced plans to end the road at a new campground one mile below
the lake.
By the summer of 1966 Forest Service planning and development of the Wheeler Peak
Scenic Area had created considerable public discussion. Thus, the Forest Service felt
compelled to explain its rationale for the management of the area. Accordingly, the bureau
issued a lengthy statement entitled "Management of the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area" in
June 1966. In the document the bureau described its development program for the area:
Recreation Facilities
There are presently public camping facilities in the area totaling 73 units. The
five-year development plan calls for an additional 120 units and two primitive
back country camps, the latter accessible only by foot trail.
A total of 15 miles of new hiking trails have been constructed or are under
contract. Future plans call for completing this trail system in the Lehman and
Baker Creek drainages.
Interpretation for the Visiting Public
The Wheeler Peak Scenic Area offers an exceptional opportunity to protect and
interpret the history, geology, and ecology of a typical example of Great Basin
country. Five life zones are represented in the area and plans call for
interpreting these zones at points along the Lehman Creek road.
There are other unusual features that will be preserved and explained to the
public - the ancient Bristlecone pine stand which will be accessible only by foot
trail, the glacial features of Wheeler Peak, native flora and fauna, the world's
largest mountain mahogany tree, and many other features of interest.
A modest visitor center is planned in conjunction with a new ranger station to
be located at Baker, Nevada, which will provide information to the visitor before
he enters the area.
96. 1965 Accomplishment Report, Wheeler Peak Scenic Area, Humboldt National Forest, Forest Service, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Prepared by Wilford L. Hansen, Forest Supervisor, Baring Bill H.R. 6122, Great Basin
Park, Box 26, Walter S. Baring Papers, Nevada Historical Society, Reno.
283
Wildlife Resource Development
The area is an attraction to sportsmen, providing big and small game hunting
and fishing opportunities. Each year a sizeable harvest of deer, blue grouse,
and sage grouse is taken from these National Forest lands. In a region largely
desert, several small but important fishing streams are found in the Snake
Mountains. A positive program of developing waters for greater production of
trout is entirely feasible through stream habitat improvements.
Access to the Area by Roads
A road system is being developed to make part of the area available to the
general public. The two primary access routes are in the Lehman and Snake
Creek drainages. These roads will permit opportunities for recreational facilities
to accommodate and confine public use as well as afford fine vistas of the
desert range country below.
The Lehman Creek Road
This road originates at the Lehman Creek campground in the foothills at an
elevation of 8,200 feet. It then climbs generally to the northwest, largely outside
the Lehman Creek drainage, for a distance of 9.8 miles. At the 9,932 foot level,
the road swings back in to the Lehman Creek basin and extends 2-1/2 miles
to a planned campground at a 9,950 foot elevation where it terminates. The
road ends about one mile by trail from Stella Lake. From the road end, a foot
trail begins to the ice field under Wheeler Peak, a distance of four miles. At
a future date, a trail may be built to a grove of ancient Bristlecone pine - one
of several in the Snake Range - located about 2-1/2 miles by trail from the
campground.
The total length of the road is 12.3 miles, 9.8 of which are graded but not
paved. The last 1-1/2 miles of main road and 1.1 miles of campground road
were placed under contract November 24, 1965. The contractor started work
March 24 of this year. It is planned to issue a contract for paving the entire
length in F.Y. 1967.
Detailed field studies were made of several possible routes into the Lehman
Creek basin. The one selected was carefully designed and adjusted to minimize
disturbance to soil and vegetation. Back slopes and fill sections have been
revegetated as work progressed. The actual design of the road and
construction to date has been one of most carefully considered projects of this
type in the Intermountain Region. Every effort has been made to lessen the
impact of construction on the area's resource values, both material and
intangible. There are no Bristlecone pine trees in the vicinity of the road.
Scientific Values to be Protected
Although the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area is not a unit of the Wilderness
Preservation System under the Act of 1964, about 80% of it will remain
inaccessible except by foot and horse. This includes the famous Bristlecone
pines, the ice field in the glacial cirque, and Stella, Teresa, Johnson and Baker
Lakes. A carefully designed campground at the end of the road will be the
starting point for hikers to explore the scenic and other attractions which lie
above and beyond, . . . this campground will be on relatively flat bottom land
284
in an open spruce aspen grove. It is designed with a hundred or more foot
space between units for those who want a quality camping experience.
Facilities for mass type or group use are not planned or contemplated.97
After five years of construction the twelve-mile road, which at first was commonly called
Asilo Verde Drive but later came to be known as the Wheeler Peak Scenic Road, was
completed in July 1966. The road, which offered long-range views of Snake Valley,
terminated at the proposed 37-unit Wheeler Peak campground about one mile from Stella
Lake. Trails led from the campground to Teresa and Brown lakes and a bristlecone pine
grove.
The road, which was graded and graveled to high standard, was constructed by the
La Barge Construction Company, a Wyoming-based firm. The grade for most of the road
was about eight percent, but in several places it had a grade of as much as fifteen percent.
To save what was considered a record-sized limber pine, the road was resurveyed to swing
around the tree. In another spot the road was redesigned to conserve a spruce fifteen feet
in circumference.98
In September 1966 the Forest Service let a $100,000-contract to the La Barge Construction
Company for reconstruction of the 3.6-mile Baker Creek Road to an all-weather, high
standard gravel surface. The contract also included work on 3.3 miles of interior
campground roads for a new campground facility in the Baker Creek Narrows area to
provide room for 120 camping and picnic sites. While this Greycliffs Campground was
laid out with roads and spurs, budget cutbacks would prevent its completion and full
development.99
The Forest Service continued to push its development program for the Wheeler Peak
Scenic Area to accommodate the nearly 100,000 tourists who were visiting the area
annually by 1967.100 In January of that year the bureau announced that 5.5 miles of trails
had been completed between the proposed Wheeler Peak campground, providing
connection with Stella and Teresa lakes and the nearby bristlecone pine trees area and
improved access to the Wheeler Peak ice field. By July 1 the reconstructed Baker Creek
Road would be competed, providing improved access to the Baker Creek Trail, a seven-
mile trail up Baker Creek to Baker Lake which was being relocated and rehabilitated.
Among other things the Forest Service planned to have "a full-time professional visitor
interpretive service man in the area" during the summer of 1967. Improved signing, three
scenic overlooks with interpretive media along the Wheeler Peak Scenic Road, modest
displays, visitor guidance facilities, and a possible short publication on the area were being
planned.
97. "Management of the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area," June 1966, Nevada - Mt. Wheeler, Incidents, 1961-
1969, Nevada Outdoor Recreation Association Papers, Nevada Historical Society, Reno.
98. Ely Daily Times, July 1966, 1630 - Written Information, 2 - Out Service, Newspaper Clippings, RG 95,
National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9533).
99. Ely Daily Times, September 23, 1966, and Salt Lake Tribune, July 14, 1967. The National Park Service
granted a special use permit to the Forest Service for an area approximately 80 feet by 312 feet near the southeast
corner of Lehman Caves National Monument for reconstruction of the Baker Creek Road.
100. For an example of the type of publicity being given to the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area see Betty Orr,
"Baker's Dozens," Nevada, XXX (Fall 1970), 18, 20, 22, 24-25, 42.
285
When development of the scenic area was completed, the Forest Service estimated that
20 percent of the area would be accessible to the motoring public, while 80 percent would
be open to horseback or foot travel "on developed trails or cross country."101
Early in 1968 it was announced that the Lehman Caves National Monument visitor center
would be enlarged to accommodate Forest Service exhibits, interpretive services, and
offices.102 The roads and spurs, five double-unit masonry toilets, and a water system for
seven camping sites had been completed in the Wheeler Peak campground. Thirty more
sites in the campground, each with a fire ring, charcoal grill, concrete slab, table, and
benches, were slated for construction. Budget cutbacks, however, would prevent completion
of the campground for several years.103
A survey of recreation opportunities on the Snake Division during 1967-68 indicated that
there were five public campgrounds and ten scenic features that were accessible by trail.
The campgrounds were:
Wheeler Peak - 7 family units
Lehman Creek - 24 family units, 2 group units
Lehman Creek Trailer Camp - 1 1 family units
Baker Creek - 17 family units
Snake Creek - 8 family units, several undeveloped sites
The ten scenic features were
Bristlecone Forest - Located two miles up the Ice Field Trail
Ice Field - 3-1/2 miles on Ice Field Trail from Wheeler Peak Campground
Wheeler Peak - Reached by 5-mile Wheeler Peak Trail
Stella-Teresa Lakes - Reached from Wheeler Peak Campground via 3-mile Solace
Loop Trail
Bristlecone Pine (Mount Washington) - Reached by 4-wheel drive vehicles from
Spring Valley and by horses from Snake Valley
Baker Lake - Reached by 7-mile trail from Baker Creek Road
Johnson Lake - Reached by jeep and hiking, 5 miles above Snake Creek
Campground
Baker Creek Cave System - Located easily and accessible from Baker Creek Road
101. Nevada Appeal, January 29, 1967. In 1968 a fence was constructed along the Baker Creek Road to
prevent the drift of cattle to the Baker Creek Campground.
102. The jointly-operated Lehman Caves National Monument Visitor Center was opened in 1970. For data on
Forest Service operations in the facility see Lehman Caves Visitor Center, Operation and Maintenance Plan,
Approved September 30, 1982, Basic Data, Great Basin National Park General Management Planning Team Files,
Denver Service Center.
103. Unidentified newspaper clipping, 1630 - Written Information, Newspaper Clipping, RG 95, National Archives
and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9533), and Correspondence in
Development Sites in Public Sector, Wheeler Peak Campground, Basic Data, Great Basin National Park General
Management Planning Team Files, Denver Service Center.
Pfifi
Snake Creek Cave System - Located along Snake Creek Road
Lexington Arch - Located at end of Lexington Creek Road and reached by
automobile and hiking104
During the spring and summer of 1968 the Wheeler Peak Scenic Road was paved under
a contract let to the Schocker Construction Company of Murry, Utah, for nearly $500,000.
The contract included paving of the roads and spurs in the Lehman Creek campground,
Lehman Creek trailer camp, and Wheeler Peak campground.105
During 1968 the Forest Service prepared an interpretive prospectus for the Wheeler Peak
Scenic Area. The purpose of the prospectus was to analyze interpretive needs in the area
and recommend themes to be interpreted for the public. The prospectus made
recommendations as to the facilities and media required to interpret appropriately the
topics, sites, and issues. The prospectus divided the scenic area into eight interpretive
units, each having its own unique story to tell. These units were:
1. Lehman Creek
2. Wheeler Peak
3. Baker Creek
4. Snake Creek
5. Big Wash
6. Lexington Creek
7. Mount Washington and Lincoln Peak
8. Big Springs Wash and Murphy Wash106
Although the trail system development in the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area was largely
completed by the early 1970s, it did not achieve national recognition until 1979. On March
6 of that year the Wheeler Peak Trail System was designated as a national recreation trail.
The trail system was comprised of a continuous loop trail and three spur trails known as
the Wheeler Peak Summit Trail, Stella Lake Horse Trail, and Bristlecone-lcefield Trail. The
Solace Loop Trail began and ended at the Wheeler Peak campground and formed a three-
mile loop passing both Stella and Teresa lakes. The three spur trails added another seven
miles for a total of ten miles of trail in the system. The recreational uses of the trail
system consisted of day hiking, horseback riding, backpacking, camping, rock climbing,
botanical walks, scenic photography, geological study, hunting, and bird watching. Off-
road vehicles, except snowmobiles, were prohibited. Visitor use of the national recreation
trail exceeded 60,000 visitor days per year, the seasonal use of the trails extending
primarily from July to September.
104. "Reference Text For Preparation of Forest Recreation Maps and Information Brochures," 1967-68, Historical
Files, USFS, Elko.
105. Ely Daily Times, January 3, 1968, and Elko Independent, January 12, 1968.
106. Wheeler Peak Scenic Area Interpretive Prospectus [1968], Basic Data, Great Basin National Park General
Management Planning Team Files, Denver Service Center.
107. Wheeler Peak National Recreation Trail, Establishment Report, Approved March 6, 1979, Basic Data,
Great Basin National Park General Management Planning Team Files, Denver Service Center.
287
U.S. FOREST SERVICE GRAZING MANAGEMENT POLICIES IN THE SOUTHERN
SNAKE RANGE
Early grazing policy on Nevada National Forest range lands was governed by provisions
in the aforementioned Use Book. The volume stated that the Forest Service would allow
use of
the forage crop of the reserves as fully as the proper care and protection of
the forests and the water supply permit. Every effort will be made to assist
the stock owners to a satisfactory distribution of stock on the range in order
to secure greater harmony among citizens, to reduce the waste of forage by
tramping in unnecessary movement of stock, and to obtain a more permanent,
judicious, and profitable use of the range.
On the other hand, the Forest Service expects the full and earnest co-operation
of the stock owners to carry out the regulations.108
According to one historical account of the Forest Service, there was a six-fold purpose to
the grazing regulations. These were: (1) to prevent injury to timber stands and avoid
interference with reforestation; (2) to protect watersheds against damage from livestock;
(3) to accomplish complete utilization of the forage crop; (4) to prevent range monopoly;
(5) to avoid unfair competition in the use of the range; and (6) to accomplish a more
equitable distribution of grazing privileges.109
The initial reaction of the livestock interests toward Forest Service grazing policies was
opposition and fear of regulation. This attitude, however, gradually changed to cooperation
as the results of conservation management were measured. This change of attitude was
described in 1933 by John Yelland, a sheep rancher who had arrived in White Pine County
in 1881. He observed:
About 1895 to 1900 sheep increased generously. The feed before this was
gradually decreasing. Races was frequent to get to certain springs and fresh
feed, only to find some other one there only a dust pile left. The mountain
range was already worse. Lambs came down from the mountains weighing
from 30 to 40 lbs. Lots of them died on the range. About 1907 we had heard
about Forest Reserve and the most terrible things they would do to the users
of the range. Nearly all believed it was our finish. Some brave souls, however,
thought we could not get anything worse than we had been going through and
counseled moderation and "try-it-out." I shall not forget the first men we had
here as Forest Supervisors and Rangers. They surely had a job to do and
overcome. However, range users got to see and know it was the only way out
reasonably, as I saw it. It has proved alright after being started about 1909 and
the major of the users got to know the rules and regulations. Our lambs went
from 50 lbs or so to 65, 70 & 80 lbs each. It showed us that conservation of
the range was our only salvation. The driest years from 1923 to the present
was better than the best years before the Forest Service came in existence.
It is my experience the range is gradually improving. ... In regard my ideas
108. Quoted in Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, p. 269. for further information on the history of Forest Service
grazing policies, see Will C. Barnes, Western Grazing Grounds and Forest Ranges (New York, Arno Press, 1979),
and William D. Rowley, U.S. Forest Service Grazing and Rangelands: A History (College Station, Texas A&M
University Press, 1985).
109. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rise of Multiple-Use Management in the Intermountain
West, p. 41.
288
of the matter and control of the sheep ranges. I would say that I would like to
see the balance of the range in the control of the Forest Service. As Forest
supervision is the only reasonable and feasible way to handle these fast-
dwindling ranges with the feed being cleaned out by the roots and branch. The
Forest supervision of the forest is the only single thing we have pot today this
minute to hang on to. Lots of talk but this is our only salvation.
Within several years of the establishment of Nevada National Forest, virtually all of the
Snake Division was divided into grazing allotments. Local ranchers were permitted to
graze stated numbers of cattle and/or sheep in specified areas, provided they cooperated
with Forest Service policies and regulations and paid assigned grazing permit fees. Among
the earliest Forest Service regulations were those reducing the number of animals allowed
to graze, salting plans, and cattle herding and sheep trailing guidelines.111
Four of the earliest allotments to be established on the Snake Division were the Big Wash,
Strawberry, Swallow, and Shingle Creek units. These four allotments were placed in
operation between 1909 and 1912. Established in 1909 or 1910 the boundaries of the
Big Wash Allotment were later described by Forest Ranger Sylvan D. Warner:
Commencing at the forest boundary on the south ridge of Lexington Canyon,
thence in a westerly direction to the forks in Lexington Canyon. Here the line
crosses at the head of the fenced private land and the line runs north to the
north ridge of Lexington Canyon at this point. From here, the line continues in
a westerly direction along the main divide between Lexington and Big Wash
Canyons to the high point near the forks of Big Wash. From here, the line
continues in a southwesterly direction on the main divide around the south fork
of Big Wash. Thence in a westerly or northwesterly direction toward Lincoln
Peak on the main divide between Garrison Big Wash (North Fork) and Decathon
and Murphy Wash Canyons. From Lincoln Peak, the line continues in a
northerly direction to Mt. Washington and from here by way of the main divide
between Big Wash (North Fork) and Snake Creek. Thence it runs in an
easterly direction along this main divide to a point a little west of the Shoshone
trail where it crosses this divide. From this point the line drops down into Big
Wash Canyon around a basin which is called Deerhead Basin. The line
continues on around the peak up to the divide between Snake Creek and Big
Wash Canyons and thence in an easterly direction along this divide to the forest
boundary.
For the next three decades the Big Wash Allotment was used exclusively by the owners
of the Big Wash ranches. While the carrying capacity of this allotment in 1938 was
estimated to be 500 sheep and 20 cattle, apparently the allotment permittees never grazed
more than a few cattle and some 200 to 300 sheep. The small number of animals that
were grazed on this allotment was attributed to the fact that it was "perhaps the most
difficultly grazed of the entire Baker Ranger District." In 1939 Forest Ranger Warner
described the grazing conditions on this allotment:
Garrison Big Wash Canyon is noted for its rough terrain and practically
impassable, boxed canyons. The entire north fork which embraces quite a
drainage is devoid of watering holes with but two or three seeps or small seeps,
110. Yelland to Olsen, February 8, 1933. Historical Files, USFS, Elko. Ill, Studies - Uinta (Nevada), Historical
Information, Gary E. Larson, Forest Supervisor, June 9, 1941, Historical Files, USFS, Elko.
111. I, Studies - Uinta (Nevada), Historical Information, Gary E. Larson, Forest Supervisor, June 9, 1941,
Historical Files, USFS, Elko.
289
but at which no permanent water development has been maintained. The south
fork affords quite a little favorable vegetation but as a whole, this allotment is
difficult to graze, first by nature of the terrain and second, by remoteness from
available water. The area below the forks of Big Wash Canyon from the Snake
Creek divide to the Lexington divide is of little summer use. It is severe, dry
granitic soil and it is felt that little summer grazing can result from the use of
this area.112
In 1910 the Strawberry Allotment, consisting of the entire drainage of Lehman Creek, all
of Strawberry Canyon except Windy Canyon, and the small drainages on the east face of
the Snake Division between Lehman and Strawberry creeks, was established and awarded
to G.S. Robison & Sons. The boundaries of the allotment were described in 1939:
Commencing at the forest boundary near the Potter homestead, the allotment
boundary runs in a westerly direction along the main divide between Strawberry
and Weaver Creeks to a peak about one-quarter mile west of the Osceola ditch
tunnel. From this point it runs in a southerly direction to the bluffs at the mouth
of Windy Canyon, thence in a westerly direction to the summit between Willard
Creek and Strawberry Creek. Thence north along the main divide between
Spring Valley and Snake Valley to Mt. Wheeler. Thence east along the main
divide between Lehman and Baker Creeks to the forest boundary just south of
the main road to Lehman Caves.
This well-watered allotment was considered to be "the most choice allotment in the Baker
Ranger District." Some 3,400 sheep were grazed on the allotment in 1910, and an
average of 3,200 sheep used the allotment through 1922. Overgrazing led to a reduction
in permitted numbers of sheep to 2,200 in 1923 and about 1,100 during the 1930s.113
The Swallow Allotment was established in 1909-10, and the Swallow Brothers were granted
a permit to graze 250 cattle and 2,800 ewes. The boundaries of this allotment were
described in 1939:
Commencing at the forest boundary about one-half mile south of the west jog
in the forest boundary on the Spring Valley side near Raise[d] Spring, thence
east to a little knoll just north of Hub Basin Mine, thence in an easterly direction
along the water trail to the main divide between Spring Valley and Snake Valley.
From here, the line runs in a southerly direction along the main divide, over Mt.
Washington to Lincoln Peak. From here the line runs in a southeasterly
direction along the divide between Big Wash and upper Johns Hollow into
Decathon Canyon to the head of the south fork of Big Wash, thence along the
divide between South Fork and Decathon Canyon to Granite Peak (the Y).
From this point, the line goes south along the main divide between Decathon
Canyon and Cedar Cabin, dropping down to the Draw which heads at the forks
(horse corral). From this point, the line cuts in a southeasterly direction towards
Big Spring, Nevada and cuts across the heads of several draws draining into
Big Springs Wash.
112. Range Allotment Management Plan, Nevada National Forest, Big Wash Allotment - S&G, August 5, 1939,
Sylvan D. Warner, Forest Ranger, Historical Files, USFS, Ely. See Appendix S for a brief history of the Big Wash
Allotment to 1939.
113. Range Allotment Management Plan, Nevada National Forest, Strawberry Allotment - S&G, July 20, 1939,
Sylvan D. Warner, Forest Ranger, Historical Files, USFS, Ely. See Appendix T for a brief history of the Strawberry
Allotment to 1939.
290
This allotment comprises all the drainage of Decathon Canyon, all of lower Big
Springs Wash below the Forks, all of Johns Hollow and Murphy Wash, all the
west side of the Snake Division from the Hub Basin drainage, Shingle Creek,
Williams Creek, Dry Canyon, Box Canyon, Hole Canyon, Lincoln Canyon, Water
Canyon and many other unnamed drainages to the south.
This allotment was large in terms of surface acres. However, the nature of the range,
remoteness from water sources in many sections, and general inaccessibility of the terrain
reduced the permitted carrying capacity of the allotment. By 1919 the number of stock
permitted for grazing on the allotment was reduced to 1 ,600 sheep and 200 cattle. During
the late 1930s the permitted numbers were reduced further to some 1,100-1,200 sheep and
200 cattle.114
In 1912 the Shingle Creek Allotment was established, and the Marriott Brothers were
permitted to graze nearly 3,000 sheep within its boundaries. In 1939 the boundaries of the
allotment were described:
Commencing at the forest boundary at Willard Creek, thence in an easterly
direction to the divide between Strawberry and Willard Creeks, thence in a
southerly direction along the main divide between Snake Valley and Spring
Valley, over Baldy Peak, Mt. Wheeler, Baker Peak to a point at the head of the
drainage just north of the Hub Basin Mine. From this point on the main divide,
the line runs westerly along the water trail to the little knoll just north of Hub
Basin Mine, thence west to the forest boundary about one-half mile south to the
west jog in the forest on the Spring Valley side near Raise[d] Spring.
The entire area of the allotment was available for grazing except for those areas above
timber line. The allotment was well-watered but very rough and rocky - perhaps the most
rocky allotment on the Snake Division.
The allotment was taken over by the Robison Brothers in 1920. Until 1935 they grazed
some 2,800 sheep on the allotment. In that year the permitted number of sheep was
reduced to 2,550, and in 1937 the allotment was divided into two segments - Weaver and
Shingle creeks.115
Grazing and forage conditions on the Snake Division were investigated by Inspector of
Grazing Ernest Winkler during September 1916. He observed that the division had "a
high rugged summit extending north and south, sloping east and west of Mount Wheeler,
Mount Washington, and Lincoln Peaks." The north and northeast portions of the division
were "well watered, Snake and Baker Creeks being the principal streams having their
source at the base of the peaks mentioned." The streams extended into Snake Valley
where they were used for irrigation purposes. The "less important streams" were used "to
irrigate small narrow strips of land located along the creek bottoms."
The cover on the Snake Division range consisted of grasses, balsamorrhiza, snowberry,
purshia, and lupine, the latter representing "the most important sheep forage perhaps on
114. Range Allotment Management Plan, Nevada National Forest, Swallow Allotment - S&G, August 5, 1939,
Sylvan D. Warner, Forest Ranger, Historical Files, USFS, Ely. See Appendix U for a brief history of the Swallow
Allotment to 1939.
115. Range Allotment Management Plan, Nevada National Forest, Shingle Creek Allotment - S&G, August 5,
1939, Sylvan D. Warner, Forest Ranger, Historical Files, USFS, Ely. See Appendix V for a brief history of the
Shingle Creek Allotment to 1939.
291
the greater portion of the division." Winkler observed that the division had been
overstocked with sheep in earlier years. "Outfits" had dropped out, however, "so that if a
careful study of distribution is made it will not require as great a reduction to secure
satisfactory results as is the case on the Schell Creek Division." A "reduction of at least
10%," however, might "be necessary to relieve the situation" on the division unless more
outfits forfeited by non-use. Winkler observed further:
The cattle allotments on this division will provide for the stock and secure
satisfactory improvement. Careful watch, however, should be kept of the Baker
Creek Division with a view to seeing to it that the stock are not increased to an
extent that will result in injury. As a rule, it is noted that the tendency of the
cattle on this division, as well as the balance of the Forest, is not to drift onto
the Forest but rather to drift off, so that according to the rangers there is no
serious difficulty as to excess numbers. The stock are accustomed to running
in the flats below and the rough quartzite rock of the mountains soon make
them tenderfooted and they drift back to the flats. According to the rangers it
is usually necessary to keep moving the stock onto the Forest during the
summer.
On the Snake Creek Division there is a considerable portion of the range now
assigned to cattle that I doubt can be used to any advantage, due to its
topography and rugged surface. This question should be studied with a view
to assigning the sheep to such portions of this range as can not be successfully
used by cattle. This will aid, no doubt in offsetting reductions in the sheep for
protection. If such provision for sheep can be developed that will likely relieve
the sheep situation without injury to the cattle interests, it would then probably
be advisable to defer the reduction one year in order to determine the results.
The best forage found on this division is located at the head of Big Spring
Wash Canyon on the west slope. Its condition is primarily due to lack of water
and is a part of the Swallow allotment. According to Ranger thompson, this
area is about three miles wide and six to eight miles long. The upper portion
of it has a splendid cover of good forage. This is another section of the country
where the question of careful study of water possibilities is important. The
Cedar Cabin Spring should be developed with a view of securing as much as
possible of this range, and in addition to this the ranger should encourage the
sheepmen to drift their sheep onto this range as much as possible during storm
periods when the sheep can get along without water.
Winkler was surprised when comparing "the condition of the range with the condition of the
stock." The cattle "were in fair condition as a whole and a good percentage of the dry stuff
was in good condition to fat." The sheep were "principally ewes but were in good
condition." If normal conditions prevailed, they would "be able to withstand the winter
without difficulty."
The tendency was "to graze small bands of sheep from 900 to 1 ,200 head." Sheep were
handled by a "bedding out system," each herder moving his own camp with a foreman for
each two herds. The foreman furnished supplies for the herder, hunted for lost sheep, and
performed other duties. The herders and foremen were all Basques. Lambing was done
under the drop system.
Cattle were generally driven on to forest lands and "allowed to go as they please." An
exception to this rule occurred when they drifted off forest lands, the ranchers then driving
them back on to their allotments. Efforts were made to keep cattle off the sheep
allotments. Sheep and cattle were usually counted by forest rangers when they entered
292
the forest. Winkler complimented the forest supervisor and rangers "for maintaining
thoroughly posted lines between different classes of stock; it is the most complete I have
yet seen."
Winkler observed that the stockmen were objecting to a Forest Service rule that they
provide salt for their cattle. He observed that they "take the attitude that their fathers never
salted their cattle and they do not see any necessity for changing the rule since they got
along all right." He had seen no salt on the Snake Division, and thus commented:
I feel confident from what I saw that there is need for greater activity in the
matter of salting and I suggest that the ranger adopt the method of notifying
the permittee by letter of the amount of salt that he desires placed on the
range, where it should be placed, and the date that he will be expected to
distribute it. This will then enable the ranger to be on the ground and see to
it that the salt is placed on the ground where desired. The stockmen state
that they have difficulty in securing salt, but so long as we accept such
excuses the range will be poorly salted. In this connection it might also be
advisable for the ranger to bear in mind that through the proper distribution of
salt he will be able to secure a better distribution of the stock.
According to Winkler, a "system of grazing seasons" had been adopted that provided "for
three months use of the range by sheep." This arrangement was fully justified "for the
reason that one spring it may be possible for them to remain off the Forest until late owing
to climatic conditions, while other years it may be very dry and absolutely necessary to go
to the higher country earlier, and consequently come off the Forest earlier in the fall or
vice-versa."
Only one livestock association had been recognized on Nevada National Forest by 1916.
It was doubtful whether other organizations could "be developed inasmuch as the cattle
business" was "more or less a one or two man proposition due to the isolated range
conditions." The principal task facing officials of the forest was to study "conditions on
the ground with a view of securing a better distribution of the stock and a more uniform
utilization of the range."116
During the years 1909-19 the U.S. Forest Service took steps to improve the stock grazing
prospects of the Snake Division. In 1912, for instance, "stock watering places" were
inventoried, and a working plan development of springs on the range was prepared. The
plan stated the need for such development:
Stockmen, in this vicinity, long ago realized the necessity and advantage of
developing stock watering places on the summer range. This became
necessary on account of the long distances stock were obligated to trail to
water, and it afforded new range areas, which could not be utilized before on
account of an inadequate supply of water.
The plan also described the springs that had been developed by stockmen on the division:
During the last seventeen years in Murphy Canyon and Big Spring Wash,
located in Township 11 N., Ranges 68 and 69 E. Swallow Brothers have
developed and troughed eleven springs. These troughs are protected from
116. Memorandum for the District Forester, Ernest Winkler, Inspector of Grazing, October 28, 1916, 1440 -
Inspection, Year 1916, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-
333/Location No. 88830).
293
fouling by guard rails close to one side so that stock can drink from one side
only.
The approximate cost for developing and troughing each spring for material and
labor is $100.00. By this development Swallow Brothers were enabled to utilize
approximately 10,000 acres of good range for their sheep and cattle.117
The Forest Service continued to monitor grazing issues and take steps to improve forage
conditions on the Snake Division during World War I. During 1915 some 200 cattle died
as the result of eating lupine, and forestry officials took measures to eradicate that plant.
Under the direction of the forest ranger the ranchers with permits to graze cattle on the
division "deferred the grazing of this area practically every year until after the grasses
matured and went to seed," thus improving range conditions. An area of some 3,000 acres
in Lexington Canyon, for instance, had "been grazed lightly by a few cattle during the early
part of the season, while water was obtainable, and later, after the September storms," it
was "fed off by sheep." Thus, a marked improvement in range conditions had been
"secured" due "to the deferred use of the range after the seed of the various forage plants
had ripened."
While the Forest Service did not undertake artificial range reseeding efforts during the early
years because of the limited amount of rainfall, some of the permittees conducted their own
experiments. P.M. Baker, owner of the Baker Ranch until 1914, was reported as having
"experimented by sowing grass seed promiscuously from horseback over certain portions"
of the division.1
Despite Forest Service concern for range improvements, little systematic study of grazing
conditions was conducted on the Nevada National Forest and its divisions during the early
years. In 1917, for instance, forestry officials admitted that little "grazing reconnaissance
work had been done on the forest beyond "a knowledge of the approximate carrying
capacity of the various sheep and cattle allotments on the different divisions and an attempt
at making a collection of forage plants with data relative to their seeding, habits of growth
and forage value." In that year, however, the first plans to govern methods of handling
stock on the forest lands were adopted.119
The plans consisted of a "bedding-out system of sheep handling" and a "method of
controlling the grazing of cattle by distribution of salt at selected spots." The sheep
allotments were divided "to allow of deferred and rotation grazing," thus allowing at least
one-fourth of each allotment to go to seed each year. Springs and water storage facilities
117. "Nevada National Forest, Working Plan, 1912, Methods of Developing Stock Watering Placing on National
Forest," Historical Files, USFS, Ely. Later during 1918 water facilities were improved for cattle in Big Wash Canyon.
M.H. Osborne, the permittee, hauled the metal or hewn log troughs provided by the Forest Service and installed
them at Maple Spring, Birch Spring, and a small seep in North Fork. While this development would not materially
increase the carrying capacity of the allotment, it would "allow the animals to feed the range without traveling over
the steep, rough hills to water."
118. "Grazing Chapter - Supervisor's Annual Working Plan, 1915, Nevada National Forest," December 1, 1915,
and "Grazing Chapter - Supervisor's Annual Working Plan, 1917, Nevada National Forest," November 10, 1917,
Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
119. "Grazing Chapter - Supervisor's Annual Working Plan, 1917, Nevada National Forest," November 10,
1917. Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
294
were further developed so that the sheep did not have to traverse their entire allotments
in search of water.1
To improve the grazing areas for cattle on the Snake Division plans were adopted for
"proper distribution of the cattle by salting and a limited amount of herding."
Implementation of the plans allowed nearly one-half "of the cattle territory" to go to seed
each year. On March 20, 1918, Forest Ranger George C. Larson outlined the salting plan
for the Snake Division, which provided that the thirteen permittees would put out 4,818
pounds of salt for their 803 cattle and horses. He stated:
The permittees of each division have been designated by letters of the alphabet
and in addition is given a number corresponding to the date salt is put out.
Thus a ground to be used May 1 is Numbered 1 ; one where salt is placed June
15 is numbered 2 and the places to be used on Aug 15 are numbered 3.
It may appear . . . that the number of salt grounds are excessive but I hold
that it is better to place 50 lbs of salt in one place and have 25 cattle trail to
it than to place 200 lbs and have 100 cattle trail in. . . . It will be noted that
nearly all of the salt is to be put out on the same dates. It is not the plan to
follow this strictly but to have the permittees ready at about this date to put out
salt. Then if the ranger can shape his work so as to be present with some of
the permittees at the actual placing of the salt he will notify them accordingly
in sufficient time to for them to make their preparations. The ranger will not be
able to be with all the permittees when salt is put out but it is intended to show
the salt grounds to them either at the time the posts are placed or later and to
so shape the work as to accompany each permittee at one of the saltings or
more.
It is intended that 6 pounds of salt shall be used during the season but as
many of the cattle are taken off in August or September this amount may not
be necessary. It is at least twice the amount formerly used and will no doubt
seem ruinous to some of the permittees with antedated ideas. A close check
will be kept of the salt put out and if it is found that there is a tendency to
evade putting out salt it will be recommended that a penalty be imposed.
The following year forestry officials fenced in a 30- by 45-foot plot of ground along
Strawberry Creek for the purpose "of studying plant growth when not disturbed by grazing."
If funds and labor were available fourteen more plots throughout the forest were planned
for 1920. It was "believed" that the enclosures would "be valuable for comparative study
to determine whether or not the range is being properly grazed."122
Although grazing on the Snake Division had been managed under the allotment system for
more than ten years, the Forest Service still had not conducted an "intensive grazing
reconnaissance" of Nevada National Forest by 1920. The need for such a survey was
urged by Forest Supervisor Alexander McQueen on December 3, 1920:
120. Ibid, and George C. Larson, Forest Ranger to Forest Supervisor, Ely, Nevada, (and attachments), March
20, 1918, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
121. George C. Larson, Forest Ranger to Forest Supervisor, Ely, Nevada, March 20, 1918, Historical Files,
USFS, Ely. The details of the salting plan for each permittee may be seen in Appendix W.
122. "Grazing Chart - Supervisor's Annual Working Plan, 1919, Nevada National Forest," December 12, 1919,
Alexander McQueen, Forest Supervisor, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
295
There are a number of reasons why a complete grazing reconnaissance is
desirable and very much needed on the Nevada Forest. The history of the
administration has been that the average length of time that a ranger stays on
a district is less than two years. The ranger districts are large and the number
of experienced rangers, who are capable of making reliable maps that will show
graphically the range conditions, is, and no doubt always will be, small. The
range of forage supply for years of favorable and unfavorable weather conditions
is great. Most of the Forest is unsurveyed and our maps are not accurate.
The supply of water is limited and in many cases uncertain. The average
annual precipitation is below ten inches and often the seed crop is killed by
frost. Therefore when a portion of the range is depleted the process of
reseeding is slow.
To remedy the need for information on the forest area, McQueen recommended:
In so far as possible in connection with other work it is planned to have the
rangers collect what forage data they can and show it on a base map. In
connection with this it is hoped that we will be able to secure a Grazing
Assistant to spend all his time in collecting data and with the information
furnished by the rangers prepare grazing plans and a forage type map. The
approximate cost will be about $2,500 per year, to cover salary and travel and
it probably would take two or three years to complete the Forest.
According to McQueen, losses of livestock grazing on Nevada National Forest lands were
minimal during 1920. Seven yearlings died of blackleg disease, and ten or twelve cattle
and about sixty sheep died from plant poisoning. One poison area was the Robison
brothers' sheep allotment on Strawberry Creek in the Snake Division, but forestry officials
could not identify the plant causing the problem. Coyotes and lions killed some 25 cattle
and 300 sheep in the entire forest.
During 1920 measures were taken to strictly enforce methods of handling stock to improve
range and forage conditions. McQueen elaborated on these practices:
Enforcement of the three-night bedding rule was made. On most sheep
allotments a part of the range was deferred until seed matured. Practically
every herd was furnished with a burro or horse with which to move the herder's
bed each day. Where this was not done the sheep were bedded out and the
herder returned to camp, leaving the sheep unattended during the night. The
results secured were very satisfactory. In most cases the old custom of holding
to an established system of camp and bed grounds was abandoned.
Very satisfactory results were had by requiring the cattle permittees using range
on the west side of Mount Moraja to herd their cattle. Better utilization of the
allotment was had and with practically no drift on to the sheep allotments.
Generally, better salting was secured than was had last season.
It is planned to continue to enforce the three-night bedding rule and salting, by
as close a check as possible, and to apply reduction in all cases of failure to
comply with the instructions. Each permittee will be advised this month that
positively no excuse for failure to place salt at the proper time and place will
be accepted as ground for evading the reduction, with the suggestion that he
provide salt in advance. Herding of cattle will be required where this is
necessary to get proper distribution or to hold them on their allotted range. A
portion of each sheep allotment will be closed until seed maturity and trespass
296
action taken in case posted areas are grazed before authorized by the Forest
Officer in charge.
Water development projects in Nevada National Forest continued to be a matter of
concern for forestry officials during 1920. On the Snake Division it was planned to develop
Big Wash Spring and trail at a cost of $100 as soon as funds were available. This
improvement would allow an increase of fifty cattle to graze in Big Wash. McQueen
described the new Forest Service water development policies:
Water development should be on a basis of the Service furnishing all material
at Ely and the permittees doing the hauling and installing. During the past two
years we have not received the cooperation in water development that we feel
we should. The labor condition has no doubt been responsible for this to a
great extent and then I think the delay in getting funds after the permittee has
agreed to develop a certain spring has a tendency to cause him to lose
enthusiasm. It seems to me a better plan would be to put all the funds
available for water development into material without specifying any project and
have it on hand; then when a permittee asks if there isn't something we can do
toward developing a certain spring we can tell him there is and that we have
the troughs and pipe on hand and if he wishes to take them out and install
them he can have a specified amount and a limited time in which to do the
work with the understanding that if the project is not completed in the prescribed
time and manner that the material would be turned over to another permittee
for use elsewhere.
As part of its range improvement program on the Snake Division the Forest Service made
plans in 1920 for the installation of three drift fences on the Baker Creek drainage. The
fences, totaling some three miles in extent, would be built on a cooperative basis with the
Baker Livestock Company, the service to furnish the wire and staples at Ely and the
company to deliver the materials and complete construction under ranger supervision.
The fences were needed to prevent cattle from going to higher elevations "before the
proper time for grazing in the spring."123
Grazing issues in Nevada National Forest were among the most important management
questions to be faced by Forest Service officials throughout the 1920s. In November 1922
Forest Ranger Graham S. Quate reported that approximately 18,800 sheep (average
grazing fees were approximately nine cents per head) were grazed on the forest lands that
year. Of that total 235 head died of disease and 1,184 head were killed by coyotes and
bobcats. During the year various practices were initiated to improve sheep handling.
According to Quate, sheep "permittees appeared to make a more determined effort than
usual to hold their herds on the lower areas as long as possible in order to permit the
greater development of plant growth at the higher elevations." Other improvements in
sheep handling practices on the Snake Division during 1922 included:
Geo. S. Robison & Sons took a voluntary reduction of 200 head in their
permitted number of sheep for 1922 agreeing to run not more than 2,200 and
agreeing also to abandon the practice of following their ewe bands with a dry
herd. They actually grazed only 1,963 head. Their lambs for 1922 were about
3 pounds heavier than in 1921, which increase we presume was due to the
change in method of handling, and the reduction in numbers grazed.
123. "Grazing Chapter - Supervisor's Annual Working Plan, 1920, Nevada National Forest," Part Two
Protection and Development, December 3, 1920, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
297
Swallow Brothers adopted the practice this year of running a straight band of
dry sheep on their Snake Range allotment. Apparently their allotment was more
evenly utilized than heretofore and less damage to the range resulted.
The Young Canyon, -Horse Heaven, -Bonita Basin allotment was utilized this
year by a cooperative herd made up by G.W. Gonder, P.W. Baker, and Rudolph
Merchun; having in it a total number of 704 head. On account of this herd
containing 167 head belonging to G.W. Gonder which were run in place of 40
head of cattle from the Snake Creek cattle allotment, the herd was grazed in
Snake Creek Canyon south of the old sawmill setting for a period of 14 days.
This relieved the Horse Heaven-Bonita Basin country to a noticeable extent and
this range was left in an improved condition at the end of this season.
Concerning cattle (average grazing fees were approximately fifty cents per head) handling
improvements, Quate felt that cattle should not be permitted to graze upon the higher areas
of the allotments at the opening of the season. Accordingly, plans were developed to
construct a system of drift fences across the mouths of Lehman and Baker creeks and
Pole, Can Young, and Snake Creek canyons.
To increase the capacity of the Big Wash Allotment the Forest Service completed the
Shoshone Trail in 1922. The trail extended through the North Fork of Big Wash Canyon
from the Chapman-Taylor Spring to the head of the canyon. The trail "made range available
for about 20 head of cattle for six weeks time."124
During the summer of 1923 Inspector of Grazing D.A. Shoemaker rode the range in the
Baker Creek drainage, observing range conditions and problems. His inspection tour
extended to the head of Snake Creek and the low range from Baker Creek to Bingham
Creek" and "the common use range between Lehman Creek and Strawberry and the
Strawberry drainage." In his report of the inspection Shoemaker observed:
The cattle range in the vicinity of Baker Creek is largely of very rough surface.
The lower elevations are of a limestone formation, the upper of igneous. Even
the more gentle slopes and bottoms of the ranges are in general strewn with
rocks making travel over them difficult. The lower ranges are characterized by
pinon and juniper types and sage brush-grass-weed types. The higher
elevations are covered in many places by coniferous timber composed of limber
pine, white fir with some Douglas fir and Englemann spruce and fox tail pine.
These timber types are practically worthless from a forage standpoint. The
rocky soil and dense shade together with the small amount of moisture results
in very little undergrowth. This country is pretty well watered but it is difficult
for cattle to travel a great distance due to the rocky surface.
In general this range is in an overgrazed condition. However, it appeared that
none of it is being overgrazed at the present time. The lower elevations and
in general the bottoms of the canyons are being too heavily grazed but a
number of the upper slopes had a pretty good percentage of the forage
apparently seeding. In such a type of country we will, of course always have
heavier grazing by cattle on the more gentle slopes than on the steeper,
however, I am of the opinion that a considerable amount of the present localized
overgrazing could be overcome with a correspondingly greater use of the less
accessible portions through better salting methods and better herding of the
124. "Grazing Report, Nevada National Forest, Protection and Development," G.S. Quate, Forest Ranger,
November 1922, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
298
cattle. Salting in general was pretty good and undoubtedly was a big
improvement over what it was a few years ago. However, in general, the salt
grounds were not placed far enough away from water but apparently have been
located about midway between the water and the maximum distance it was
figured the cattle would graze.
Shoemaker believed the poor condition of the lower ranges was "due to premature use."
He felt the opening date of the grazing season was two to four weeks too early. The
problem could also be improved by developing "a definite distribution plan by natural
management units and making an attempt to have the cattle distributed, salted and herded
in accordance with the plan from the very beginning of the season."
Shoemaker had some strong comments about the common grazing of cattle and sheep in
the Baker and Strawberry creek drainages. He observed:
I understand this range was grazed in common by sheep and cattle a few years
ago which may be the cause, at least in part, of its present depleted condition,
since the forage types are not adapted to common use grazing. It is believed
cattle are securing practically all the forage that would be taken by sheep
excepting possibly some of the snow berry. But I am sure this is not of
sufficient importance to justify grazing both classes of stock. With exclusive
sheep grazing it is believed there would be a waste in grass forage just about
equal to the waste in browse forage under exclusive cattle grazing.
The Strawberry drainage is grazed by both sheep and cattle which I think is
entirely proper from a forage standpoint. This country is also closely grazed but
a number of the more rocky slopes support blue bunch-wheat grass which is
being utilized to a very small extent. Poor herding of the sheep on this
allotment, it is believed, is partly responsible for the poor conditions particularly
along the water and in the aspen types. The sheep are herded by Basques
who believe in close herding and shading of sheep on water for a considerable
part of the day. No effort was being made to graze the sheep on a number of
the slopes which are accessible to this class of stock.
One of the principal problems in "securing proper management" of the ranges in Nevada
National Forest, according to Shoemaker, was the "Basque sheep herders." The Basques
close herded the sheep and used dogs "to a large extent which results in trailing out and
wasting lots of forage." The herders drove "the sheep into water," "allowing them to stay
there for a considerable part of the day." Instead of "camping ahead of the sheep and
simply directing the movement of the leaders," the herders bunched "them up by using
dogs from behind them" and drove them across the range. Accordingly, Shoemaker
recommended that forest officials work directly with the sheep owners rather than the
herders to change grazing practices and urged the Forest Service to consider making "the
permittees change the nationality of the herders."125
An extensive report on grazing in Nevada National Forest was prepared by R.D. Garver,
Inspector of Grazing, on November 14, 1924. The report provides one of the best
summaries of grazing conditions in the forest during the 1920s. Garver noted that grazing
was "the major activity on the Nevada" and that the 1924 grazing season "was the driest
for a decade or so." Between the mountain ranges in the forest were "relatively level,
wide, sparsely settled valleys" that contributed much "to the carrying of the stock" on forest
125. Memorandum for Grazing, D.A. Shoemaker, Inspector of Grazing, August 8, 1928, 1449 - Inspector of
Grazing, August 8, 1923, 1440 - Inspection, Year 1923, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration,
San Bruno (Accession No. 61 -333/Location No. 88830).
299
lands during the summer season. The valleys furnished "spring and fall range, and to a
large extent the winter feed for practically all the sheep and some of the cattle."
In general, the Nevada National Forest ranges were, according to Garver, "rather dry, of
relatively low carrying capacity, and on the whole not too good a range for the fattening of
lambs." On the Snake Division the carrying capacity was 63 acres per cow and 13 acres
per sheep. Thus, there "must be large areas of inaccessible and low carrying capacity
range, and a cow must travel considerable distance to obtain sufficient forage upon which
to subsist." To provide for proper distribution of animals and prevent serious localized
overgrazing, cattle "must be broken in general, at least, into small bunches." The entire
Snake Division was found to be overstocked, necessitating a voluntary ten percent reduction
for range protection purposes and removal of several permittees to the Schell Creek
Division.
According to Garver, good progress "in adjustment of seasons to fit the vegetative
conditions" had been made on the range of Nevada National Forest. Except for minor
adjustments to meet local conditions on the forest, the seasonal situation was "relatively
satisfactory." However, he recommended that the season for cattle and horses not be
opened on the Snake and Mount Moraja divisions before May 16. Forest supervisors were
to be allowed a two-week discretionary period to open grazing seasons.
Garver devoted considerable space in his report to a discussion of stock handling problems
on the Snake Division. He elaborated on the continuing need to enforce range protection
and improvement practices:
There are no systematic deferred and rotation plans for the sheep allotments
on this division. The ranger has made a practice, it is understood, of deferring
those areas which are in need of protection. Here again, probably a systematic
plan would help a new ranger to keep the management end going.
About 200 yards east of the Upper Spring in Murphy Wash Supervisor Beam
and I found in one place portions of eighteen blocks of pressed salt and three
pieces of red rock salt. In the beginning it is estimated that there were about
200 pounds of salt. This is on Mr. Swallow's range, and upon inquiry he stated
that he had sent the salt up with instructions to his men to distribute it
according to the plan that he and the ranger had agreed upon. It is very
evident that no very serious attempt was made by Ranger Quate to see that
this salt was properly distributed. This is about the worst breakdown in the
salting plan on the Nevada that I saw.
On common use ranges on the Nevada, the actual application of a deferred and
rotation plan has been difficult because the cattle were not herded and in
general drifted to the deferred areas just the same as to any other. We must
be very careful in formulating these plans that something really worthwhile is
accomplished. The sheepman has a true complaint if we defer a portion of
his allotment so far as his use is concerned, and then do not require the
cowmen to so handle their cattle that the area will be protected. This is at
times difficult to work out, but it should be kept in mind, and if at all possible
the cattle should be excluded from these areas either by actual herding or so
framing the salt plans as to keep all salt a considerable distance from the
deferred area.
Sheep continue to shade on water and on canyon bottoms. Where shade and
water are both scarce i have come to the conclusion that it is pretty near
impossible to prevent sheep from shading on water. I, of course, admit that it
300
is hard on the range, and that where possible the sheep should be watered and
then taken to a nearby ridge to shade. We will have to use some judgment in
this matter, and where it is possible for users to water, then drive their sheep
on to shaded areas, insist on it. But where the shade is pretty scarce and
there is no chance to pass on, it seems as though we would have to put up
with the practice of shading up on water.
Trespass continued to be a problem on the range of Nevada National Forest during the
early 1 920s. It was estimated that at least 500 mustangs were in trespass on forest lands
in 1924. Most of the mustangs were unbranded, and those which were generally had no
owners. State laws were too unwieldy to handle the situation, so stockmen were "seeing
that a lot of them receive lead poisoning."
In the past considerable trespass trouble had been experienced "from nomadic bands of
sheep, particularly on areas where the boundary" was not marked, thus preventing Forest
Service officials from filing trespass violations. A new practice of appointing per diem
trespass guards had been initiated until the entire boundary could be surveyed and marked.
Trespass from drifting cattle continued to be a problem on the forest, however, since cattle
were run yearlong in the surrounding valleys and several of the permittees had stock
considerably in excess of their permitted numbers.
According to Garver, the Nevada forest was "fully organized as to stock associations,
several new associations having been perfected within the last year or so." The stockmen
and forest rangers were working "in good spirit," and headway was being made concerning
range issues "from a cooperative standpoint."
Recently, a special rule relating to allotment of grazing privileges in Nevada National Forest
had been issued by the stock associations and adopted by the Forest Service. The rule
concerned the question of commensurability of ranch and range holdings in determining
qualifications for new allotment applicants and purchasers and providing a basis for the
issuance of ten-year permits. The rule read:
New applicants for sheep and established permittees shall be considered as
having commensurate ranch property upon which to base transfer or continue
grazing preferences where:
1. Land is owned and operated in connection with the sheep, producing 50 pounds
of hay per year per head of sheep, or its equivalent in other suitable crops.
2. Ownership or control of sufficient spring and fall range to carry the stock
during the spring and fall season. It being understood that control of
water and spring and fall range may be interpreted to mean use of such
water and range over a period of years or access to water and range
on public range where it is reasonable to assume under the custom of
the locality that such water and range is available.
Forest range users had constructed most of the water improvements on the Nevada forest.
The recent improvements followed a standard 18-inch "half round galvanized iron tank"
plan, thus making them more durable than earlier water improvements. It had been
standard policy "where absolutely new country was opened up or the carrying capacity
increased by water development to allow those doing the work the benefit by increasing
their preferences."
Sheep outfits, according to Garver, were not burying their cans or cleaning up their camps.
Thus, he recommended that a mandatory policy be issued requiring that camps "be cleaned
301
up where they are located on public camp grounds or where there is a headquarters camp
year after year." Garver went on to state that in "the disposition of the bodies of dead
animals, it is felt that where these bodies are in or near running water or on public camp
grounds or near any administrative site which is used for camping purposes or along a
public highway that without exception the bodies should be burned or buried at the expense
or by the owner."
Garver also commented on the movement "to place the Snake Division within a State Park
and exclude grazing." He stated:
At the present time this movement has died down, and in all probability it will
not come up again. The State of Nevada is not favored to any great extent
with antiquities of any sort, and the State government has taken a great interest
in the Lehman Cave and the surrounding caves. At the present time a national
monument covers the best part of the Lehman area. Grazing has been
restricted in the past to an extent that it did not interfere with the recreation use
made of the Lehman area. In my judgment, this is all that is necessary.
Summer range in Nevada is far too valuable to be set aside for purely
recreational purposes when the most of the range has little recreational value.
I think that recreation and commercial grazing both have a use on the Snake
Division. One use need not be subservient to the other, but a common sense
plan of recognizing both uses should be worked out. No greater area should
be withdrawn from grazing use than is needed for recreation. On the other
hand, it would not be fair to recreation to allow unrestricted grazing on the
choice recreation areas. So long as Lehman and Baker Creeks are reserved for
the recreationists until the camping season is over, there should be no objection.
The above plan has been followed pretty much during the past season and I
do not see why it will not meet the needs of the situation in a way that will be
satisfactory both to the recreationists and to the stockmen.126
By the late 1920s detailed grazing plans were developed annually for the allotment
permittees. Examples of these plans for the Bonita Basin and Strawberry Creek drainages
in the Snake Division during 1927 may be seen in Appendix X.
A report on grazing management on the Snake Division prepared by Forest Ranger Warren
Taylor in February 1932 described range conditions during the early 1930s. Taylor
observed that the division had been used in common by cattle, horses, and sheep for
several years, resulting in overgrazing of some allotments. Virtually all the cattle allotments
had been converted to sheep, however, and the remaining cattle allotments were under
non-use, thus improving range conditions. A large number of wild horses had been killed
in 1930, but fewer were destroyed in 1931. If the division was closed to horses in 1932,
Taylor believed they would "be pretty well cleaned up." He noted that supervision of the
permittees was needed since all of them wanted to get their stock "on the high ranges
first." He promoted development of springs and installation of troughs, because the "more
watering places we can develop the faster our range will come back." Most of the existing
watering locations were overgrazed, because the recent drought had forced the permittees
to take their stock to those areas more often than usual. Deferred and rotation plans were
126. Memorandum for District Forester, R.D. Garver, Inspector of Grazing, November 14, 1924, 1440 -
Inspection Year 1924, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-
333/Location No. 88830).
302
being developed for the division, whereby an area on each allotment would be deferred
from grazing each year.127
During the mid-1 930s the Forest Service undertook several initiatives to improve grazing
conditions on the Snake Division. Forest rangers and ranchers killed wild horses, the
numbers destroyed amounting to 19 and 42 in 1935 and 1936, respectively. Forest officials
planted "70 acres to blue grass" to "thicken up the meadows" in 1935. Two quarts of
acorns were planted along Baker and Lehman creeks in 1936. The permittees, it was
noted, closely followed their written instructions, thus caring for their allotments in an
appropriate manner and getting heavier lambs and more wool in the process.
By the mid-1 930s there were eighteen sets of watering troughs in Nevada National Forest,
on five of which a 2,200-gallon storage tank had been installed. At the troughs where
there were tanks sheep "watered in" one-half hour, while at the others they spent four to
six hours. Thus, efforts were initiated to construct tanks at each watering trough.128
By the late 1930s the Forest Service permitted some 400-500 cattle and horses and 7,500-
8,000 sheep to graze on ten allotments on the Snake Division. The allotments were:
Shingle Creek, Weaver Creek, Strawberry, Baker Creek, Pole Canyon, Merchum, Snake
Creek, Big Wash, Lexington, and Swallow. The grazing seasons, which were regulated and
supervised by forestry officials, were described by Forest Ranger Warner:
The season established on this district for sheep is considered to be proper.
The fluctuation in the season over quite a long period of time in this locality
would indicate that the 15 days allowed to cover just such variations will no
doubt take care of any differences in the vegetative readiness of the low ranges
in practically all cases. It seems that at no time has the season been earlier
than the 1st of June and later than the 1st of July which are the bounds
allowed under the present season for sheep.
The season for cattle, established on this district, might be a little early for the
following reasons: All the canyons with the exception of Snake Creek are
without drift fences to hold cattle in the lower zones until the vegetation on the
upper ranges is ready. The majority of canyons rise rapidly in elevation and it
is only a matter of three or four miles from the lower range to the high ranges
which are not ready until after the 15th of June and later. Without adequate
zone fences and drift control improvements it is impossible to hold the cattle
down off from the higher meadows until the forage is ready and to hold the
cattle on the lower ranges where considerable feed is available that is ready.
Despite range management controls forage growth and range conditions on the Snake
Division fluctuated with weather conditions and precipitation amounts. In 1938, for instance,
Warner noted:
The season started out very favorable for forage production. In fact more grass
grew on the lower elevations than had been seen here in years. It looked very
favorable for one of the outstanding years from a forage production standpoint.
However, moisture fell during the month of July and August and all the upper
ranges suffered from this drought. The 1st of the season in the upper ranges
127. Grazing Management Plans; Snake Division, February 2932, Warren Taylor, Forest Ranger, Historical
Files, USFS, Ely.
128. Report, Nevada, Annual Grazing, 1935, December 1935, and Report, Nevada, Annual Grazing, 1936,
November 1936, Warren Taylor, Forest Ranger, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
303
was so cold that little growth resulted and then when it did finally warm up to
a point where plant growth could go on the ground was so dry and as no
moisture fell the forage did not make the growth that it normally does.
In spite of the lack of precipitation during the summer this past grazing season
saw more water in the streams and springs than had been experienced in many
years. This was the result of the very heavy snow fall occurring on the
mountain during the past winter. Streams that had not run water in 20 years
had water from the melting snow running further down their old channels than
for some time. Use was made of this water in several localities where stock
were grazed that ordinarily could not have done so at that time of the year due
to the lack of water. Many old seeps and springs long since dry during the
past several years of drought have started back. It is felt that with another
favorable winter the ground water table will be built up to a point where water,
range water, will not be such a premium as it has in the past.
It is thought that generally the ranges on the Baker district are in quite good
condition except for an occasional critical area. This improvement is due largely
to the change in the amount of moisture (the annual precipitation) and also to
the fact that perhaps the district is more nearly at the proper stocking point than
for some time.
Warner recommended an extensive grazing survey of the Baker Creek, Strawberry, Weaver
Creek, and Shingle Creek allotments. This area was "in need of definite management and
a grazing reconnaissance" was "vitally necessary for factual information in the proper
preparation of the present management plans based on past history, use and
observations." The majority of this area was
used by the Robison Bros, and has had 3595 head of sheep and 100 head
of cattle using the range under term and temporary permits during the 1938
grazing season. The area comprises about 70 square miles all north of the
Baker-Snake Creek divide. Of this section about 7,410 acres is considered
barren and inaccessible while 41,204 acres are considered open to grazing by
livestock.
Warner also reported that 23 of the 27 water developments on the Snake and
Mount Moriah divisions were "placed in first class condition" during 1938. This work
included tarring of troughs and tanks, repair or replacement of broken pipe, installation of
overflows and drain pipelines, provision for drainage of waste water, catchment basins, and
storage, digging out and fencing of springs, and cleaning out of earth reservoirs. The work
was completed largely with funds and labor provided by the Emergency Relief
Administration.
Warner noted that drift, zone, and boundary fences had been repaired. Few repairs were
required, however, as most of the fences were relatively new.129
During the late 1930s, as in earlier years, ranchers exerted pressure on the Forest Service
to increase the number of animals permitted on their allotments. One such example
occurred in August 1939 when George T. Baker and Jack Singleton attempted to convince
Forest Supervisor A.E. Briggs that there was sufficient forage in the Baker Creek-Snake
Creek area to permit more cattle grazing in the vicinity. Accordingly, Baker, Singleton, and
129. G, Management, Annual Report, Nevada, December 10, 1938, S.D. Warner, Forest Ranger, Historical
Files, USFS, Ely. This report contains comments and observations on each of the allotments on the Snake
Division. A copy of this data may be seen in Appendix Y.
304
Briggs "rode by saddle horse up Baker Creek to the Deishman cabin, and then returned
to the South Fork Trail and up the south fork to the basin and pass leading into Snake
Creek, then down Timber Creek to main Baker Creek." In his report of this trip Briggs
noted:
A few days previously I had been requested to make this trip by Geo. Baker,
and during the trip, he revealed that his objective was to convince me that
considerable forage was likely to be unutilized in Baker Canyon this grazing
season which may justify the Forest Service to increase his number of permitted
cattle next year. Jack Singleton ostensibly made the trip to look for some of
his cattle which he is out, but he exhibited a lot of interest in the range in this
locality and apparently desired to determine for himself if surplus range were
available, and if the Forest Service had been fair with him in disapproving his
application for a permit to graze cattle this year.
In riding up Baker Creek to Deishman's cabin we counted approximately twenty
head of cattle, most all of which were Geo. Baker's. Every meadow along the
canyon had been pretty heavily used, and apparently by the end of the grazing
season, these meadows will have received full use and probably over-use.
There is, however, some forage unutilized on the steep hillsides along the main
canyon and the cattle should be pushed out of the canyon onto these hillsides
through salting or otherwise in order to protect the canyon meadows from
overuse.
In riding up the south fork we noted that the Gonder sheep had been trailed a
long distance from the upper basin to a small meadow below. The damage
done in trailing to this small area of feed far exceeded the value of the feed.
It was obviously a mistake to trail these sheep so far in order to utilize a very
small meadow.
The Gonder sheep were found in the basin at the head of South Fork where
the trail passes through to Snake Creek. This basin had been pretty fully
utilized, and the herder stated that it would be necessary for him to stay several
days longer in order to get the number of sheep days as shown on the rotation
plan. It seemed quite obvious that this will result in excessive use of this area.
The herder also stated that it would be necessary for the sheep to cover all of
the areas shown on the map at least twice and some of them three times in
order to get the full number of sheep days provided for in the plan.
The plan calls for 504 sheep in this band of ewes and lambs. The sheep were
pretty well scattered and I would estimate more than 504 sheep. The herder
said the sheep had not been counted by the ranger since entering the forest.
He stated the band had been counted a few days previously by he and
Mr. Gonder, but he could not remember the number counted. Obviously, they
should be counted by the ranger at the earliest practical date.
Briggs concluded "that the main Baker Creek to the Deishman cabin, the south fork to the
upper basin, and lower Timber Creek" was "being fully utilized by the number of cattle now
permitted." Due to the "narrowness of the canyon and small size of the meadows which
comprise the bulk of the forage," he felt it would be "a bad mistake to allow sheep to graze
in either of these areas and must not be allowed." He also concluded that "the upper
areas which are planned for sheep grazing will not carry the number of sheep permitted
for the full season." As a result of the ride, Baker agreed "that Baker Creek would not
carry more cattle than are using it this year," and Singleton admitted "that the Forest
Service did the proper thing when they disapproved his application for a cattle grazing
305
permit last spring." Briggs observed that the range in the locality traversed was
"overstocked when the obligated numbers of stock are grazed, and adjustments were
necessary to prevent damage to the range."130
Cattle and sheep were grazed in common on the Baker Creek Allotment between 1914 and
1941. During the winter of 1941 and 1942, however, the class of stock was changed to
all cattle and horses on "a 5 to 1 basis on permitted numbers without regard to season."
The Forest Service developed a two-step program to solve the problems resulting from this
change in the class of stock:
1. Proper utilization of the low range by construction of a drift fence across Baker
Creek at the mouth of Pole Canyon
2. Proper utilization by riding, salting, and water development, the latter particularly
in Horse Heaven131
The Baker Creek Allotment remained a problem for Forest Service officials as they
attempted to reduce overgrazing during World War II. In September 1943, for instance,
Forest Supervisor Briggs reported:
We rode the Snake Creek portion of the Baker community allotment on
September 2 with Wayne Gonder. We found the available forage within
reasonable reach of cattle, had all been taken. It had been heavily used.
Many cows with calves were in fair to poor flesh condition, indicating a shortage
of feed.
On September 3, we rode the Baker Creek-Timber Creek-Pole Canyon end of
the Baker cattle allotment with Glen Bellander. This part of the allotment has
been generally heavily used and many cows with calves were in poor flesh
condition for this season of the year. Some little feed was still available in the
South fork basin, but 30 odd head of cattle found there would very soon have
this area closely grazed. Some little unreachable feed was noted in the head
of Pole Canyon in very steep country.
The Baker creek unit is fenced so that cattle can be, and have been controlled
on three zones, and Snake Creek in two zones. The appearance of both the
cattle and the range, strongly indicates that the cattle were held too long on the
low and intermediate zones.
At the time of the inspection, the number of cow months were computed, based
on the dates the cattle entered the allotment, and on the basis of the present
condition of the range, it is clearly indicated that the allotment is at least 38%
overstocked.
Accordingly, Briggs sent the following letter to George T. Baker, Glen Bellander, and Wayne
Gonder:
130. Memorandum for Files, A.E. Briggs, Forest Supervisor, August 18, 1939, 1440 - Inspection, Year 1939,
RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61 -333/Location No. 88830).
131. Range Allotment Management Plan, Nevada National forest, Baker Creek Allotment C&H, April 1942,
Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
306
I believe it is very evident to all of us that the available forage on this allotment
is insufficient to hold the cattle for the full grazing season. It can be said that
generally the usable range had been heavily used at the time the inspection
was made. The main permitted numbers of cattle were some 15 days late
entering the allotment. The condition of the range and also the cattle clearly
indicates that the cattle were held too long on the low and intermediate zones.
There are many cows with calves in very poor flesh condition for this time of
year in fact, too poor to go into the winter months. This is a very undesirable
condition which should be corrected, and it is hoped that we can arrive at
some adjustment which will be agreeable to all concerned by the beginning of
another grazing season. In the meantime, your cattle will lose flesh as long
as they are left on the allotment, and the longer they are left on the allotment
the poorer the forage conditions will be next year.132
During the postwar years the Forest Service initiated revegetation efforts to improve
grazing conditions on the Snake Division. In 1947, for instance, a 310-acre tract in the
Snake Creek drainage was planted. The ground was plowed in the spring, and seed was
planted by broadcasting and railing in the fall. After the seed matured the following year
a spiketooth harrow was drawn over the parcel, thus resulting in a full stand of plants. The
permittee for the allotment cooperated by not grazing the plot for at least two years.133
A newly-revised grazing management plan for the Baker Ranger District was approved in
October 1952 by the regional office in Ogden. According to the plan, the ranger district
(covering the Snake and Mount Moriah divisions) had a gross acreage of 296,074. Of this
total 77,948 acres were usable and open to grazing. The preference obligation for the
district was 1,061 cattle (4,598 animal months) and 6,185 sheep (18,555 animal months),
while the estimated grazing capacity was 959 cattle (4,153 animal months) and 4,400
sheep (13,200 animal months). The approved grazing season for cattle was June 1 to
October 10, while that for sheep was June 16 to September 15. It was noted, however,
that cattle were usually off the range by September 30, because the range was often fully
utilized by that date and the stockmen wanted their cattle out of the forest when the deer
hunting season began on October 1.
The plan noted that there were 49 ranches and about 75 families surrounding the Baker
Ranger District who were dependent on the forest for range grazing. The three major
communities were Baker (5 ranches, 16 families), Garrison (12 ranches, 25 families), and
Shoshone (7 ranches, 2 mines). The remaining ranches and families were in scattered
locations near the forest. All grazing permits were held by dependent ranchers located
near the district.
To qualify for grazing permits the ranchers had to meet commensurability standards. For
cattle the standard was "production of 1/2 ton of hay per head on owned lands." The
standard for sheep was "ownership of lands producing 50 pounds of hay per sheep and
ownership or control of sufficient spring and fall range to carry the sheep while off the
forest."
The plan evaluated grazing concerns in relation to watershed, recreation, wildlife, and timber
uses. In terms of watershed management the plan stated:
132. Memorandum, A.E. Briggs, Forest Supervisor, September 11, 1943, and A.E. Briggs, Forest Supervisor,
to George T. Baker, Glen Bellander, and Wayne Gonder, September 13, 1943, 1440 - Inspection, Year 1943, RG
95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No. 88830).
133. Memorandum of Inspection, W.W. Dresskell, July 27, 1949, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
307
Protection of our watersheds is the main obligation of the Nevada National
Forest to the public. Therefore, grazing will be regulated to best preserve the
plant cover so that it will contribute most toward maximum water storage and
proper runoff, and the maximum production of forage for livestock and big game
use.
To protect recreational use of portions of the forest the Lehman Caves National Monument
and Lehman Creek picnic and campground areas were closed to grazing. Concerning
these areas the plan noted:
The Lehman Caves National Monument ... is closed to grazing, however, the
area is unfenced and permitted cattle drift from adjacent forest areas onto the
area. There has been some little complaint from the Park Service to the cattle
permittees in the past in regard to cattle trespass. (No complaints have been
made to the Forest Service). It is not reasonable to expect the permittees to
herd their cattle from this area when all the adjacent areas are open to cattle
use. If the Park Service wants to eliminate grazing they should fence the area.
The Lehman Creek picnic and campground areas of approximately 40 acres
have in the past been grazed lightly by sheep the latter part of the grazing
season to reduce the fire hazard. Inasmuch as the sheep must pass through
this area to use Lehman Cr. Canyon it may be good business to continue this
practice, however, extreme caution should be used to avoid unsanitary
conditions which would bring complaints and criticism from the public.
In some areas there was conflict between domestic stock and deer on the Snake Division.
The plan observed:
During the late fall and winter, most of the deer are forced out of the higher
areas by snow and move to the south end of the division in the Murphy Wash,
Johns Wash, Big Springs Wash, and Trough Mt. areas. Much of the south end
winter range is outside the forest and is in very serious condition as evidenced
by the hedged and highlined condition of the browse plants, mahogany,
cowania, purshia, and sage. The number of deer have been allowed to
increase far beyond the grazing capacity of the winter range. For the past eight
years the estimated numbers of deer on the Snake Division has been at or near
3000 head. To date no one had formally attempted to estimate the grazing
capacity of the deer range. We do know that a reduction in numbers must be
made and the herd should probably be reduced to about 1800 head or less.
No areas have been closed to livestock for big game, nor is this contemplated
now. The policy is to reduce the numbers of grazing animals responsible for
range damage, whether it be game or domestic stock. This calls for close study
of the damaged areas and on areas where damage to the range is threatening,
to determine the class of animals responsible.
Aspen was the only timber type that was receiving damage from grazing. The Forest
Service was "not getting sufficient survival in reproduction to insure perpetuation of the
stands." Thus, grazing in aspect areas was to be regulated.
The Strawberry Creek Allotment was the only one in the district where both sheep (967)
and cattle (39) were permitted to graze. This permit was based on the fact that some
areas of the allotment could not be used by sheep because of poison but could be grazed
by cattle.
308
Trespass on the Snake and Mount Moriah divisions continued to cause concern for Forest
Service officials. Thus, the plan attempted to deal with this issue:
The Snake and Moriah Divisions are bounded on nearly all sides by outside
ranges used Spring and fall, and often yearlong, by cattle, horses, or sheep.
Unpermitted cattle and horses tend to drift on the forest when forage and water
become scarce on the lower outside ranges. Some cattle and horses drift on
the forest before the feed is ready which results in premature grazing and
damage to the range. There are only twenty one miles of boundary fence and
a continuous effort must be made by the ranger to prevent trespass.
Experience has demonstrated that it is much easier to prevent trespass than to
handle it after it has occurred. Cattle can best be counted in the spring when
the stock are rounded up and the calves branded. Winter counts are impractical
because most of the stock graze on the Public Domain all winter and are too
scattered for counting. These spring counts should be made as checks to
determine the number and disposition of excess cattle during the grazing
season. When possible, all cows will be counted as they enter the forest.
Sheep will be counted as they enter the forest or shortly thereafter.134
When the National Park Service investigated the Snake Range in the fall of 1958 to
determine its suitability for national park status, the subject of grazing was analyzed
meticulously. In the report of its findings Park Service officials reported on the existing
status of grazing on the Snake Division:
In the National Forest cattle graze predominantly in the canyon bottoms. The
mountain sides are either largely devoid of palatable vegetation, too far from
water, or too steep. The quantity of grazing land is relatively small considering
the size of the Snake Range as is evidenced by the small number of cattle
under permit. The National forest range plays a minor role in sustaining the
cattle industry around these mountains. Summer pasture for livestock is
provided largely by irrigated lands, mostly outside the Forest. There are no
sheep allotments above tree line so the tundra vegetation is reputed to be
largely undisturbed or has regenerated substantially from previous abuses. The
consensus is that livestock grazing of recent years in the Snake Range is
materially reduced over that formerly occurring.
The conflict of interest between cattle grazing and public use in Lehman Canyon
has been decided by the Forest Service in favor of recreation. A similar conflict
exists in Baker Canyon but to a lesser degree due to fewer campgrounds.
Cattle have not as yet been excluded from this allotment. Some Forest Service
officials feel, however, that grazing eventually will have to be eliminated from
this canyon also. Thus regardless of whether the area is administered by the
Forest Service or by the Park Service, the time is not far distant when the
grazing of cattle in the canyons suitable for public camping would have to be
reduced or eliminated.
On the north end of the Snake Division of the Humboldt National Forest, Mr.
Bishop has a permit to graze, 2,800 head of sheep for three months in the
summer. This allotment consists of roughly 17,000 acres of the Forest and is
contiguous on the west side to a sheep grazing allotment of some 18,000 acres
134. Ranger District Management Plan, Baker Ranger District, Snake and Mt. Moriah Divisions, Nevada National
Forest, October 22, 1952, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
309
of Public Domain assigned by the Bureau of Land Management to the C.B.
Ranch Co.
South of Lehman Caves National Monument, Bolander, Eldridge, and Gonder
run 385 head of cattle on the Forest for four months in summer. This grazing
permit covers approximately 12,000 acres. Northeast of Lehman Caves National
Monument Bolander and Gonder graze cattle on about 7,000 acres of Public
Domain.
On the south side of Big Wash Mr. Osburne [sic] has a Forest Service permit
to graze 40 head of cattle for 3 months on approximately 2,500 acres of the
Forest. Osburne [sic] owns 330 acres of patented land in the Big Wash below
this allotment which is classified by the White Pine County Assessor's Office as
35 acres of cultivated land, 40 acres of pasture, 135 acres of grazing and 120
acres of barren land.
Near the southeastern corner of this part of the Humboldt National forest, Mr.
Dearden has a permit to graze 15 head of cattle on Chokecherry Creek. The
allotment covers some 1,300 acres. According to Supervisor Dremalski [sic]
this allotment is never used, but Mr. Dearden wants to keep it in force. The
Dearden Cattle Company have a cattle grazing allotment from the Bureau of
Land Management for many square miles of Public Domain south of the Snake
Division of the Humboldt Forest. This company runs some 4,000 head of cattle.
They are pastured in summer on patented, irrigated lands along Big Springs
Creek which extends from the Big Springs to the vicinity of Garrison, Utah.
Some winters the cattle are turned out on the desert.
In the southwestern section of the Forest the Swallow Brothers have a permit
to graze 1 ,000 head of sheep in Murphy Wash during the winter. This allotment
covers roughly 12,000 acres of the Forest. It is believed that more detailed
information will show that either the Swallow Brothers or the Dearden Ranch run
livestock in the Big Spring Wash also. The area is grazed in the winter. The
Swallow Brothers have a large area under Bureau of Land Management permit
south and west of the Forest upon which they run 3,400 head of cattle.
During the 1 960s the Forest Service devoted considerable time to developing objectives for
managing range lands. As a result more formal scientific grazing allotment management
plans were prepared. These plans took a more holistic approach to range management,
emphasizing riparian, fish, wildlife, timber, grazing, and recreation values. These new
emphases emanated from Congressional passage in 1960 of the Multiple Use-Sustained
Yield Act, which supported conservation and specifically named the multiple uses of the
national forests (except mining) and required their balanced inclusion in the management
of the forests. Previously, the resources of recreation, range, wildlife, and fisheries had not
been named in the law, but the new act directly stated that the national forests "shall be
administered for outdoor recreation, range, timber, watershed, and wildlife, and fish
purposes."136
135. "Field Investigation Report, Lehman Caves - Wheeler Peak," 1958, pp. 32-34.
136. Personal interview with Peter Demeule, District Ranger, Ely Ranger District, Ely, Nevada, June 15, 1988,
and Rowley, U.S. Forest Service Grazing and Rangelands, pp. 231-32.
310
By the mid-1980s the Forest Service had further refined the scope and objectives of its
grazing allotment management plans. The Forest Service defined the purpose and contents
of its allotment plans in a 1986 document:
The Forest issues grazing permits that specify the type and number of livestock
and the season of use. Allotment management plans outline the use and
development of each allotment on a long term basis; operating plans outline
annual direction. Allotments are inspected by the Forest Service for use,
condition, and compliance with grazing permits, the Allotment Management Plan,
and the Annual Operating Plan. The permittee is responsible for herding, salting
and doctoring his livestock and for maintaining improvements on his allotment.
The current management direction for the range resource is to develop upward
trends where the range is in less than good ecological condition. Also,
emphasis is placed on obtaining the management on each allotment as
prescribed in the Allotment Management Plan to coordinate forage production
with other multiple use values. This includes proper use of the forage resource.
Emphasis is also placed on the proper maintenance of range fences and water
developments so that an effective management system can be continued.137
U.S. FOREST SERVICE MINING POLICIES IN THE SOUTHERN SNAKE RANGE
After establishment of the Forest Service in 1905 there was considerable friction between
miners and forestry officials. While the general mining laws were enforced on national
forests, miners claimed that Forest Service restrictions hampered their operations, thus
affecting their profitability.138 To settle the continuing misunderstanding the American Mining
Congress appointed a committee to confer with Chief Forester Gifford Pinchot. Two
conferences were held in March 1 909, and as a result Pinchot promised "to develop a plan
whereby the restrictions of the Forest Service" would cause "no injustice to any mining
man."
One of the objectives of both the Forest Service and the American Mining Congress was
to minimize the necessity for having Forest Service officials "consider the validity of mining
claims in making statement of fact to the Department of the Interior." Thus, Pinchot agreed
to the following stipulation:
Mining claims in any National Forest apparently held in good faith for mining
purposes will not be further examined unless the passage thereof to patent
would be prejudicial to the interests of the Government if the said claims should
in fact be found to be invalid. If any such claim is apparently not held in good
faith for mining purposes, it will be examined by a qualified mining expert to
ascertain the true condition, and the report of such mining expert will be
submitted to the Department of the Interior for its consideration.
137. Humboldt National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan, Final Environmental Impact Statement,
[1986], III, 19-20. Area ranchers complained about the paperwork associated with these more formal allotment
plans. In earlier years Forest Service personnel had ridden the range with the ranchers, helping build improvements,
erect fences, and develop springs. The more formal plans required yearly studies and extensive paperwork, thus
limiting the amount of time Forest Service personnel spent on the range interacting with the ranchers. Personal
interview with Owen Gonder, Garrison, Utah, September 17, 1988.
138. "Mining Claims on Forest Reserves," Mining and Scientific Press, XCVI (June 27, 1908), 887-88; "Mining
Claims on Forest Reserves," Mining and Scientific Press, XCVII (July 4, 1908), 3; and "Mining Claims on Forest
Reserves," Mining and Scientific Press, XCVII (August 8, 1908), 165.
311
A second dispute between the American Mining Congress and the Forest Service
concerned the amount of timber miners could cut on forest lands for use in their operations.
Pinchot promised a liberal administration of the free-use timber permit policy to miners. He
reminded the Congress of the current regulations governing that policy:
The holder of a mining claim in a National forest has the right to take timber
from that claim for use thereon, or elsewhere, if such timber is used for the
development of the claim from which it is cut. The regulations and instructions
of the Forest Service concerning the free use of timber on National Forests
provide that timber to the amount of $20 in value can be secured from a ranger,
and a supervisor can grant free use to $100 in value. And since the District
Forester on December 1, 1908, became invested with the powers given the
Forester by Regulation No. 23, such District forester may now grant free use
when necessary for amounts in excess of $100.
The Service desires that men engaged in prospecting or developing mining
claims in the National Forests should have a liberal free use of timber from the
Forests, if the timber on any claim is not sufficient for its development, so long
as it is a prospect and not a producing mine. When a prospect becomes a
mine and begins to produce ore, it is then a commercial enterprise and no
more entitled to free use of Government timber than any other business.
To make the free-use policy even more amendable to miners Pinchot issued the following
instructions in 1909:
In granting free-use permits, Forest officers should make every effort to provide,
without unfairness to other interests entitled to consideration, and without injury
to the Forest, that no prospector or miner working for the preliminary
development or exploration of his claim shall be denied the free use of timber
needed and suitable for these purposes within reasonable limits, if there is not
upon the claim to be developed a sufficient amount of timber for such uses.
Care should also be taken to avoid the marking for use under a free-use permit
of any timber which cannot be used by a prospector or miner, or any small user
to whom a free-use permit is issued. Large users of special material who
operate, or can operate, sawmills may properly be required to take with such
special material other merchantable timber which it is necessary to remove for
the future productiveness of the Forest or to avoid rendering the remaining
timber on the area unmerchantable. But it is believed that very few cases will
arise which will make the enforcement of this restriction necessary as to free-
use permits.139
During the next seven decades the Forest Service continued to regulate and monitor mining
in the national forests within the parameters of the general mining laws. In 1980 a bureau
pamphlet summarized the Forest Service policies on regulating mining:
Anyone proposing to conduct operations which might cause a disturbance of
surface resources on the National Forest must file a "Notice of Intent" with the
local District Ranger. The District Ranger then has 15 days to determine
whether or not the proposed operations will likely cause a "significant"
disturbance of the surface. If he determines that a significant disturbance is
likely, the operator will be required to prepare a plan of operations which
includes provisions for the protection and rehabilitation of the surface resources.
139. "Forest Service and Mining Claims," Mining and Scientific Press, XCVIII (May 29, 1909), 756-57.
312
A "Notice of Intent" is not needed to simply "pan" for gold when it will not cause
significant surface disturbance. However, a "Notice of Intent" is required for any
operations which will involve the cutting of trees or the use of mechanical earth
moving equipment.
When the "Notice of Intent" is filed, the local District Ranger will be able to
advise you of any permits which may be required by local, state, or other
federal agencies.
U.S. FOREST SERVICE ARCHEOLOGICAL RESEARCH ACTIVITIES IN THE SOUTHERN
SNAKE RANGE
By the early 1920s the Forest Service was aware that there were significant archeological
and speleological resources on the Snake Division. The resources were centered primarily
in the Baker Creek Cave System, where pictographs were found in the late 1910s or early
1920s, but there were caves, rockshelters, and other prehistoric sites elsewhere in the
division. Although minor exploration and research work was conducted during the 1920s,
extensive archeological research efforts did not begin until the summer of 1934.141
On July 30, 1934, the Secretary of Agriculture granted a one-year permit to the Southwest
Museum of Los Angeles, California, to conduct archeological explorations and excavations
in caves on Nevada National Forest lands. The permit was extended annually until work
was concluded in June 1940. The studies, which were directed by Museum Curator Mark
R. Harrington, were approved by the Smithsonian Institution and funded in part by the
Carnegie Institution of Washington. The caves for which the permits were granted were
located along Smith Creek and near "The Narrows" along upper Baker Creek. The primary
purpose of the archeological fieldwork was to conduct digging in these caves and nearby
rockshelters for evidence of "human and prehistoric animal deposits and bones."142
Harrington, who has sometimes been called the "father of Nevada archeology," had
become interested in the Smith Creek and Baker Creek caves during the summer of 1932
when he, his wife Edna Parker Harrington, and son Johns surveyed the region along the
Nevada-Utah border north of Gypsum Cave. During the survey the Harringtons found a
number of caves containing evidence of human occupation. They observed and sketched
various pictographs and collected artifacts for the museum.143
In September Masterkey, the official publication of the Southwest Museum, noted that the
institution had received "relics of a colony still more distant from the Pueblo centers in
140. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Things . . . You Need to Know When Searching for Gold
in the National Forests, August 1980.
141. "Sawmill Rockshelter" located on Baker Creek was excavated by Louis Schellback in 1927. His principal
find was a cache of three bundles of snares made of Indian hemp or dog bone. Paul J.F. Schumacher, "Archeology
of the Wheeler Peak Area," February 26, 1959, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park.
142. Correspondence and documentary materials relating to the permit may be found in a notebook entitled,
"HNF History - Land Uses," in Historical Files, USFS, Elko.
143. Ruth Simpson, "Mark Raymond Harrington: Father of Nevada Archeology," Nevada Historical Society
Quarterly, VIII (Fall-Winter 1965), 16-19, and Johns Harrington, "Adventure in a Nevada Cave," Desert Magazine,
VI (May 1943), 18-19.
313
Arizona and New Mexico - a colony established at the foot of Mount Wheeler
on the Utah line." The relics were
almost
a rough cooking-pot of oval form; a smaller jar made to represent two bowls,
one sitting on top of the other and provided with a handle; a number of Pueblo
potsherds, some decorated in black-on-gray, some of the well-known corrugated
type; a couple of Indian-made beads; an arrowhead; and last, but not least, a
brush made of stiff grass and native twine, exactly like those still used in Pueblo
Indian homes, the stub end used for brushing the hair, the other for sweeping.
The relics had been found "in a series of small caves near Garrison, Utah, and near the
place where Snake Creek, originating on Mount Wheeler, crosses the state line and runs
out upon the desert." The pottery vessels were thought to date from "the second or Early
Pueblo period" and were heralded as "probably the northwestern most entire Pueblo vessels
on record." The collection was found and presented to Harrington by former Forest Service
ranger Graham S. Quate and his sons of Garrison.144
In the March 1933 issue of Masterkey Harrington's wife, Edna Parker Harrington, described
the pictographs they had found in the Baker Creek caves the previous summer. The article
included drawings of the pictographs, copies of which may be seen below:
$$•' ¥'
• h
Pictographs in and about Baker Creek Cave. Nevada
In her article Edna Parker Harrington noted that we moved camp and "were in the Alpine
foothills of Mount Wheeler." The cave "farthest upstream was very damp and dark, with
a penetrating chill, cruel in its intensity." Most of the pictographs, however, were near the
entrance. She observed:
The first pictographs, a-e of the illustration [see above], were copied from the
rocks outside the cave's entrance. The figures seemed to be in association and
are arranged in the relative positions that they appeared on the rocks. All were
painted in red. a, b and d, e, the figures holding hands, suggest Kachinas and
Kachina-mamas, or woman Kachinas, the horned ones being the males. If we
might allow our fancy full play, the super-natural being with outstretched arms
(c), soaring above the heads of the others, suggests a blessing upon the heads
of those below him.
144. M.R. Harrington, "Relics of an Abandoned Colony," Masterkey, VI (September 1932), 115-16. Also see
M.R. Harrington, "More Cave-Hunting," Masterkey, VI (September 1932), 120-21.
314
Now we take a few steps around the corner, enter a rocky hallway leading to
the outer entrance of the cave, and pause to look to the right, 'way above our
heads, a huge horned Kachina, shown in figure f.
Leaving this imposing Kachina, a step or two brings us into a kind of foyer
above the cave mouth, where we find two more characters depicted (g, h), in
about the same relative position to each other as shown in the illustration.
How tantalizing! Not every fancy seems to offer anything for our peace of mind
as pictograph g comes before us. The top of the figure, which resembles a
Kachina's head, was black, and the connecting line of the figure below was red.
What appears to be another Kachina head {h), as well as the little triangular
device at the bottom with its associated lines, were all red.
After leaving this cave the Harringtons entered another cave a short distance down stream.
This cave was dry and dusty and "gave the impression of having been long occupied."
There were "pictures everywhere - many painted on the ceiling and continuing down below
the present level of the floor." Mrs. Harrington crept back to where the ceiling and floor
met, but "it was useless to try to sketch, for the paintings were very faint: only splotches
of color remained, all form having been obliterated." Near the entrance, however, there
were "several paintings in splendid condition." One was the arched form in figure /', which
was painted in red with thirty-two dots within the outline. A short distance to the left was
"a strange drawing, shown in figure /." The center of the circular figure was solid black,
while red filled in the outer circle.145
During the summer of 1934 Mark Harrington conducted an archeological dig in what he
termed Upper Baker Creek Cave. That November he reported on his activities and findings
in Masterkey.
Here in 1932 we had dug a test-hole near the entrance down to the depth of
six feet without finding the bottom of its man-made layers of ashes and
charcoal, layers of which, of course, meant a long period of occupancy, some
time, by somebody. Now we sank a shaft near the original pit, and found that
the ashes and charcoal, together with bits of the bones of food animals and fire-
cracked stones, continued on down to a depth of more than twelve feet! About
halfway down we uncovered a crude but unmistakable chipped stone implement-
-a sort of "chopper" or hand-axe; and farther down still, an obsidian chip and
a broken scraper-like worked stone.
In this cave we had thus found a satisfactory-almost too satisfactory- depth for
our human deposits, and in them such crude tools as very ancient man should
have used. But alas! the bits of bone from our shaft failed to show any
fragment that could be surely identified as belonging to an extinct Pleistocene
beast. In the rear of the cave, on the other hand, a shallow test-hole turned
up several suspicious looking bones among the familiar remains of deer and
bighorn--and one in particular looked like horse. Why couldn't we have found
these in the shaft with the ashes and implements? Maybe we will make such
a find some day in Baker Creek Cave if we ever get the chance to dig it out
properly.146
145. Edna Parker Harrington, "More Kachina Pictographs in Nevada," Masterkey, VII (March 1933), 48-50.
146. M.R. Harrington, "American Horses and Ancient Men in Nevada," Masterkey, VIII (November 1934), 165-
69.
315
In March 1935 Mark Harrington wrote an article concerning the future prospects of
archeological digs in the Upper Baker Creek Cave. He noted:
The upper Baker Creek cave seems another good prospect, on account of its
very deep floor deposits - again more than 1 2 feet - including long habitations
in ancient times. These deposits contained ashes, fireplaces, and rude
implements. While in this cave the bones of extinct animals were not found
directly in the layers of man-made refuse, our test pit was of small diameter and
there is plenty of room in the cave where such a combination might occur.147
Annual summer expeditions to the Baker Creek-Wheeler Peak area were led by the
Harringtons and their assistant S.M. Wheeler on behalf of the Southwest Museum through
1939. During 1936 Wheeler investigated a 40-acre Pueblo II site 1-1/2 miles north of
Baker. From surface collecting and test pitting he found
potsherds, arrowpoints, hammerstones, one pestle, manos (long and short
varieties), part of an excellently formed metate, implements chipped from both
sides (probably scrapers), the head of a clay figurine, a small turquoise pendant,
and a heavy pendant probably from shell, . . . potsherds showing the following
varieties: gray plain ware; red plain ware; black-on-red; black-on-gray; black-
on-white; red-on-gray; black-on-gray with fugitive red; corrugated ware; black-
on-gray inside, corrugated outside; imitation corrugated around the neck and
true corrugation around the body of the pot; incised; a combination of corrugated
and incised (wiped); corrugated (wiped); cord-marked, and a combination of
cord-marked and incised.148
Researchers at the Southwest Museum concluded that the site had "distinction of being the
largest" Pueblo site "yet recorded so far north and west."149
In September 1937 a party from the Southwest Museum led by S.M. Wheeler pitched camp
"in the rockshelter above Baker Creek." Excavations were begun at "Baker Creek Cave,"
and a "deep stratified deposit of human origin" was discovered. Among the mammal
remains in the ash layers the archeologists recovered a bison tooth, a fragmentary bone
artifact, and several crude stone implements. Various caves and rockshelters on forest
lands near Mount Moriah were reconnoitered by the party, but no materials of interest were
found. The party spent time further investigating the Pueblo II site near Baker and studying
the Lake Bonneville terraces on both sides of Snake Valley.150
In 1938 the National Park Service contracted with Mark Harrington to excavate the deposit
immediately underneath the natural opening of Lehman Caves. S.M. Wheeler began the
excavation project in August 1938, recovering an undetermined number of human and
faunal bones before a shortage of funds terminated the effort.151
147. M.R. Harrington, "Report of the Curator," Masterkey, IX (March 1935), 58.
148. S.M. Wheeler, "A Pueblo II Site in the Great Basin Area of Nevada," Masterkey, X (November 1936),
207-11.
149. F.W. Hodge, "Report of the Director," Masterkey, XI (March 1937), 42-52.
150. Archeological Report, Southwest Museum, 1937, M.R. Harrington, Curator, February 1938, Historical Files,
USFS, Elko, and S.M. Wheeler, "An Archeological Expedition to Nevada," Masterkey, XI (November 1937), 194-97.
151. Trexler, Lehman Caves . . . Its Human Story, p. 55.
316
During the spring of 1939 a Southwest Museum expedition led by S.M. Wheeler continued
earlier archeological studies along Baker Creek. The project was funded by Jean
L'Empereur, a dietitian at the Monte Sano Hospital in Los Angeles. Among the sites
investigated on this trip were the cave which had recently been discovered a short distance
below the natural entrance to Lehman Caves, Ice Cave, and a "deep cave just below the
Narrows."152
There was no organized archeological research on the Snake Division for more than two
decades. During the late 1960s, however, the nationwide movement for preservation of
cultural resources had an impact on Forest Service management. Officials demonstrated
renewed interest in the protection and interpretation of prehistoric rock shelters and
petroglyph and pictograph sites. Among the sites surveyed were: (1) a 1/4-acre petroglyph
site on the north side of the north fork of Shingle Creek; (2) the Baker Creek rock shelters
along the north side of Baker Creek that were seen as possible future interpretive sites,
(3) a site (Site X) near Raised Spring that consisted of extensive petroglyphs and rock
carvings; and (4) a 1/4-acre petroglyph site 1/2-mile southeast of Ohio Spring in Horse
Canyon.153
The most significant of these sites was the petroglyph site near Raised Spring on the
western flank of Wheeler Peak. The site was extensive, covering an area approximately
400 yards by 200 yards, and included 81 separate petroglyph panels containing a total of
140 individual elements. All of the basic petroglyph styles of Great Basin rock art,
representing a span of some 3,000 years, were present at the site. The site was unusual
in that the petroglyphs were in a pinyon grove, and very thin stone slabs weathered from
a nearby outcrop were utilized for the inscription of the petroglyphs. As described in 1969
by Mel Aikens, an archeologist affiliated with the Nevada State Museum, the main
importance of the site lay
in the fact that it is the first, and for the present at least, the only fully recorded
petroglyph (as opposed to pictograph) site of significant size known from White
Pine County, Nevada. Its existence extends the distribution of all styles of
Nevada petroglyphs into at least a portion of the northeastern sector of the state
that Heimer and Baumhoff (1962:206) were forced to conclude was devoid of
the petroglyph type of rock art. It is significant also that internal evidence from
the site suggests the same relative dating of petroglyph styles for this area as
has been established for other parts of the Great Basin. The area is thus firmly
incorporated into the broader province of Great Basin rock art, from which it has
been excluded.154
A team of professionals representing the Forest Service, National Park Service, Sierra Club,
and Nevada State Museum studied the questions associated with protection, preservation,
and interpretation of the site. They agreed that the usual protective measures, such as
construction of a fence and posting of signs, would not be effective in safeguarding the site
since the petroglyphs were inscribed upon thin slabs of micaceous schist, many of which
were portable: The isolated location of the area made site development uneconomical.
152. S.M. Wheeler, "The Jean L'Empereur Expedition In Nevada," Masterkey, XIII (November 1939), 216-20.
153. John R. Glenn, District Ranger to Forest Supervisor, Humboldt N.F., January 7, 1970, Historical Files,
USFS, Ely.
154. Mel Aikens, "The Petroglyph Site: Evaluation and Recommendations," [1969], Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
317
Hence they felt the site was in danger of vandalism from collectors of antiquities, art
dealers, and mere curio seekers.
Accordingly, it was agreed that the petroglyphs that were portable should be removed from
the site. The choice of moving methods, manner of storage, and the place of storage
should be determined by Forest Service personnel. Since some of the petroglyphs could
not be moved, a plan for mapping, photographing, and marking the petroglyph slabs prior
to removal was approved in January 1970.
The petroglyphs were removed from the site during the summer of 1970 and stored.
During the early 1980s some of the slabs were installed as exhibits along a new Indian
Rock Art Interpretive Trail near the Baker Creek campground area.156
U.S. FOREST SERVICE SPELEOLOGICAL RESEARCH ACTIVITIES IN THE SOUTHERN
SNAKE RANGE
Because of its proximity to the celebrated Lehman Caves the Baker Creek Cave System
had intrigued speleologists for years. Thus, the Forest Service sponsored a major research
field study of the caves in the Baker Creek Narrows during 1952-55. The principal
purpose of the study was to gain a better understanding of the dynamic relationship
between the caves and surface streams in the vicinity.
The field studies were sponsored by the O.H. Truman and Max C. Fleischman Foundation
of Nevada as part of the research program of the Western Speleological Institute based in
California. Cooperating in the venture were the Nevada State Museum, the Santa Barbara
Museum of Natural History, the Museum of Northern Arizona, and Stanford University.
During the three-year study the caves in the Baker Creek Narrows were explored and
subjected to a variety of hydrological experiments. Among the caves examined were: Ice
Cave, Crevasse Cave, Pictograph Caves and Rockshelter, Dynamite Cave, Deep Cave,
Sawmill Cave, and Model Cave, the latter receiving the greatest attention.
The study concluded that because of their proximity and location in the same drainage area
Lehman and Baker Creek caves were probably "related in their evolution, Lehman
representing a more advanced state." Furthermore, the researchers found:
The Baker Creek Caves (except Sawmill Cave) are recognized as having been
connected by channels admitting circulating water. In its early stages flow
through the system occurred principally under pressure, resulting in enlargement
by solution along joints and bedding planes. After large passages had
developed, the upper regions quieted to become lake basins and stream
courses; the lower zones remained subjected to forced-flow. Boulders and
cobbles of upland material suggest that the main water source was surface
drainage, probably Baker Creek and melt-water from the Tahoe epoch glacier
whose moraine dams the normal valley course. Ice Cave and Dynamite Cave
constitute in-take ponors feeding the system from creek overflow. Fracture
crevices, such as Crevasse Cave and the entrance of Deep Cave, supply
trickling water from rain and melting snow. The caves of the west wall of The
155. Donald R. Tuohy, "The White Pine County Petroglyph Site: Further Recommendations," [January 1970],
Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
156. Multiple Use Survey Report, Removal and Storage of Petroglyphs, Site X, Ely Ranger District, Humboldt
National Forest, Region 4, [1970], Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
318
Narrows connect with Model Cave underneath Pole Canyon. Waters of the
latter rise periodically, tending to overflow from the cave mouth as they did in
the past, forming a karst resurgence. Episodes of quiet silting have been
interspersed between periods of more violent flow in this cave.
The dry shelter caves in the east wall of The Narrows must have been part of
a larger system - probably the Ice-Deep Cave system of the opposite wall - if
continuity of flow indicated by their flutes is to be credited. Such an intercourse
of galleries, once collapsed, could have resulted in The Narrows, which are
otherwise a topographic anomaly. These galleries, either roofed or exposed,
could very well have served to divert Baker Creek from its normal valley, into
Pole Canyon. It is suggested that the moraine at the head of The Narrows may
have forced the diversion.
Today upper portions of the caves have been abandoned by their streams and
lakes, and speleothem deposition is proceeding. Model Cave alone remains as
a seasonal reservoir, filling with water over most of its length whenever Baker
Creek overflows into Dynamite and Deep Caves. While Pole Creek also
disappears underground, dye tests have failed to reveal where its water goes.
At least 1 .8 second-feet of recoverable water are presently lost to subterranean
channels of The Narrows each spring.157
Research on the Baker Creek Cave System continued during the 1960s and early 1970s
under the aegis of various speleological groups. In February 1974 Alvin McLane, a
professor at the University of Nevada, Reno, evaluated the natural features and significance
of the cave system:
There are 16 known caves along Baker Creek: Baker Rockshelter, Coyote
Hole, Crevasse, Deep, Dynamite, Fools Hole, Hallidays Deep, Ice, Lower
Pictograph, Model, (Upper) Pictograph, Sawmill, Sink, Systems Key, T-Cave,
and Three Hole. Crevasse, Deep, Dynamite, Hallidays Deep, Ice, Model, and
Systems Key comprise the Baker Creek Cave System. They are physically or
hydrologically connected, which constitutes the largest cave system known in
Nevada, consisting of some 13,780 feet of cave passages. . . . Model Cave
is unusual because here is a chance to study cavern development actively
taking place. The water table in the cave fluctuates about 200 feet, an
uncommon situation, where generally, the water table in most areas generally
fluctuates only a few inches or a few feet per annum. Model Cave also has an
unique floor slot, formed under submerged conditions where water moved both
up slope and down slope under hydrostatic pressure.
Though not presently part of the Baker Creek Cave System, the Pictograph
caves and Baker Creek Rockshelter on the north side of Baker Creek were
probably once part of the cave system before being separated by Baker Creek
cutting through the so-called Narrows.158
157. Arthur L. Lange, "Stream Piracy and Cave Development Along Baker Creek, Nevada," Western
Speleological Institute, Bulletin Number 1 (July 1958), 3-19.
158. Alvin McLane, "Evaluation of Baker Creek Cave System, White Pine County, Nevada, For Eligibility For
Registered Natural Landmark Designation," February 23, 1974, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
319
CHAPTER ELEVEN
ADMINISTRATION OF LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL MONUMENT: 1922-1986
INTRODUCTION
The most comprehensive and best researched historical account of Lehman Caves is Keith
A. Trexler's study entitled, Lehman Caves . . . Its Human Story: From the Beginning
Through 1965. The study was updated by staff personnel at Lehman Caves National
Monument in 1975. While the Trexler study provides data on the discovery and early
development of the caves, its primary focus is on National Park Service administration of
the national monument after 1933.
This chapter is not intended to duplicate the information in the Trexler study. Rather its
purpose is to supplement the Trexler report by providing additional data on the history and
development of Lehman Caves until the early 1 930s, continuing friction between the Forest
Service and National Park Service over administration of the caves during the 1930s, and
management and operation of the national monument during the period 1965 to 1986.
OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LEHMAN CAVES UNTIL NATIONAL MONUMENT
DESIGNATION IN 1922
There is little documentation concerning the maintenance, development, and operation of
Lehman Caves between the time of Absalom Lehman's death in 1891 and 1912 when the
caves and adjacent lands were added to Nevada National Forest. Occasional visits to the
caves were recorded in county newspapers, but there were no reports of further
development.1
Lehman's 7-acre "Cave Ranche," on which Absalom never filed a homestead claim, was
sold to Charles W. Rowland on November 20, 1895, for $700. This "homestead," as was
mentioned earlier, did not include the caves. Thus, the cavern's entrance has always been
in public ownership.
Rowland had purchased Lehman's 600-acre ranch on Lehman Creek in 1891. Thus,
Rowland operated the two ranches until his death in January 1905, apparently planting
additional trees in the orchard near the caves and perhaps constructing or enlarging the
large pond or reservoir at the "Cave Ranche." After his death, Rowland's wife held the two
ranches until 1911 when she sold them to P.M. "Doc" Baker. In October 1912 the caves
and the lands surrounding Lehman's "homestead" were added to the Snake Division of
Nevada National Forest. Actual federal supervision and operation of the cave was largely
non-existent for some years, however, because the land of Baker and Saval below the
caves controlled access to the caverns.2
The earliest Forest Service document to be found concerning Lehman Caves was an
inspection report prepared by Ernest Winkler, Inspector of Grazing, on October 25, 1916.
In his report Winkler described a three-hour tour of the cavern:
1. Examples of such recorded visits may be found in White Pine Daily News, July 28 and September 8 and
22, 1894, and March 22 and July 26, 1900.
2. Trexler, Lehman Caves . . . Its Human Story, p. 22.
321
The entrance to the cave is on an unassuming location that would not be
noticeable were it not for the small lumber shack that is constructed over the
hole. On entering the cave one goes down a flight of stairs probably fifteen
feet, and reaches a landing. Again from here the stairs continue about ten feet,
where the cave comes out into a comparatively large room.
The cave is reported to be between two and three miles long and in my
judgment must be at least 150 feet under ground. The lime formations in the
cave are certainly something remarkable. The stalactites and stalagmites are
in all sizes and in most any number protruding from the roof and floor of the
cave. They are indeed extremely beautiful. Mr. [E.C.] Adams, the man who
is residing on the June 1 1 claim that joins the cave, has assumed charge of the
place and keeps it under lock and key, and acts as guide for all who desire
to go through the cave. He has done considerable work in constructing
stairways, shooting out passage ways between different compartments and
naming sections of the cave. Among the most interesting features of the cave
is the compartment or room called the Music Hall. This consists of a
comparatively narrow passageway perhaps 40 or 50 feet long, in which a lime
formation has formed in stringers from the ceiling to the floor, perhaps 15 feet
long. By taking your candle or knife and striking along these stringers a rather
musical effect is secured. The tones being varied materially in accordance with
the size of the stringers; the sound echoing and re-echoing through the cave
to an extent that creates a very remarkable effect.
Another compartment called Congress Hall is a room probably 40 feet square
in which the stalagmites have formed sort of pillars and all makes a rather
grand and striking appearance. To my mind, the Jungles is the most
remarkable sight in the entire cave. This consists of a room, probably 40 feet
square and about the same height, with a small basin-like lake, probably 10 feet
square in the bottom. All about this lake and gradually to the ceiling, are
innumerable formations of all sizes and shapes, with frost-like whiteness, so that
in the candle light it creates a most beautiful effect.
I spent about two and one-half or three hours in the cave and did not reach the
end. Mr. Adams informed me that many people have visited the cave who
have also visited the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, and stated that while the
Lehman cave is much smaller, it is even more beautiful. This cave, I believe,
represents one of the most beautiful and striking natural wonders that it has
been my pleasure to visit and any one visiting in that section will find it well
worth while to go through this cave.3
In a separate report written two weeks later Winkler made further comment on Lehman
Caves. He observed:
A small lumber shack has been constructed over the entrance to the Cave,
probably about 8x10'. This is kept under lock by Mr. Adams, who resides . .
. near the Cave. His house is about 150 feet to 200 feet from the entrance,
and he acts as guide in escorting people through the Cave, charging a nominal
fee for his services. The Cave, of course, is located at a remote place, where
3. Memorandum for the District Forester, Ernest Winkler, Inspector of Grazing, October 25, 1916, 1440 -
Inspection, Year 1916, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-
333/Location No. 88830). During these years Adams apparently allowed people to tour the caves on their own or
permitted local ranchers to lead groups if he was unable to do so. Personal interview with Virginia Eldridge, Baker,
Nevada, September 15, 1988.
322
but comparatively few tourists are likely to visit. The population of this section
consists primarily of ranchers and prospectors, and the place is about seventy-
five or eighty miles from any of the important highways, Ely being the nearest
point of importance.
Mr. Adams is very much interested in the Cave and seems to take great delight
in exploring, improving and protecting it. From what I saw I would judge that
there is yet considerable of the Cave that is unexplored and it is possible that
if more passage ways were developed it would reveal considerable more area
of similar beauty to that now accessible.
To secure the most beneficial use of this Cave by the public, it is necessary
that some one be encouraged to give it attention. No one who is not
reasonably familiar with the Cave could go through it and see its beauties
without a guide. In fact, no one would be safe in attempting to go through
without a guide, because of danger of being injured, as well as lost. There are
a series of steps and ladders . . . that must be passed over and except these
are kept intact, access to portions of the Cave would be shut off. Wood
deteriorates rapidly in this Cave and consequently must be watched and
replaced. If the beauties are to be protected, guides must have sufficient
interest to prevent their destruction by breaking off for souvenirs, as well as
through carelessness.4
Adams finally acquired formal title to the land (Homestead Entry Patent No. 724,083) in
front of the caves on December 13, 1919, but his ownership was short-lived. Nathan Kiger
and Clarence T. Rhodes became owners of the property in 1920, Rhodes ultimately
becoming sole proprietor in 1923.5
CAMPAIGN TO HAVE LEHMAN CAVES DESIGNATED A NATIONAL MONUMENT
Following World War I automobile travel and tourism increased throughout the United States
as the nation entered the decade of the "Roaring 20s." To facilitate this growth in travel
large highway programs were initiated. One of the leaders in pressing for highway
improvements in Nevada was Cada C. Boak, a Tonopah mining broker and a national
director of the Grand Central Highway [U.S. Highway 50] Association.6
While the Grand Central Highway in eastern Nevada was under construction during the
post-World War I years, Boak "heard vague rumors of caves." Through the help of his
friend Victor C. Heikes of the U.S. Geological Survey and research in the records of White
4. Memorandum for the District Forester, Ernest Winkler, Inspector of Grazing, November 7, 1916, 1440 -
Inspection, Year 1916, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-
333/Location No. 88830).
5. Trexler, Lehman Caves . . . Its Human Story, pp. 22-23. Although Adams did not acquire formal title to
the land until December 13, 1919, he had the property, then consisting of 47.46 acres, surveyed on April 7, 1916.
A copy of the survey may be seen on the following page.
6. Born on March 15, 1870, in Hamilton County, Iowa, Boak moved to Tonopah, Nevada, in 1904 and became
a mining broker. During the next fifty years, he (1) was an active promoter of better highways for Nevada;
(2) served as an assemblyman in the state legislature from Nye County for ten terms; (3) filled the position of
secretary of the Tonopah Midway Mining Company; (4) organized the Tonopah Chamber of Commerce; and (5) was
postmaster in Tonopah during the Herbert C. Hoover administration. Boak died in 1954 at the age of 84. Cada
C. Boak, "Dedication of Lehman Caves National Monument: Ascent and Perilous Descent of Mount Wheeler, August
1922," Nevada Historical Society Quarterly, XVI (Summer 1973), 101.
323
324
Pine County, Boak found "the location of the old Lehman Ranch." After a "trip through
mud and over only a trail to the old ranch," Boak found Lehman Caves.7
At the formal opening of the highway in eastern Nevada in July 1920 Boak, along with
other dignitaries, spent three days at Baker and visited Lehman Caves which received
considerable attention in the press. Because of the growing popularity of the cavern the
Forest Service and White Pine County cooperated in constructing a road from the new
highway at Baker to the cave later that year. It was noted that the cave promised "to
become a very popular recreation area" and would "doubtless develop into a recreation
problem of some extent within the next few years." Thus, the road was "badly needed" to
open the area to visitor use.8
In June 1921 Boak and photographer E.W. Blair returned to Lehman Caves for further
exploration and to take photographs for publicity purposes. Following that trip Boak wrote
to his friend Victor C. Heikes in Salt Lake City:
It may interest you to know that I have just returned from a five days trip to the
Lehman Cave near Baker. ... I have been preparing for this trip ever since
last fall, and took with me a very elaborate Magnesium lighting outfit, and took
a great number of photographs practically of all explored portions of the Caves.
Messrs. Rhodes and Geiger at the caves have been showing people through
such portions of the caves as are more easy of access using nothing but
candles. I took several Five hundred candle power gasoline lanterns with me,
and made frequent quite lengthy illuminations with magnesium. I am convinced
that this was the first time that anyone has ever seen the caves under favorable
lighting conditions. I noticed that Mr. Geiger himself was as greatly interested
in seeing the caves under those conditions as I was myself.
The caves as a whole far surpass my expectations and are certainly most
beautiful. They are very extensive, and I believe when fully explored and a little
more work done so as to make additional chambers and caverns easy of
• access, that they will rank with any of the better known caves in the United
States.
Boak concluded his letter:
Adequate steps should be taken immediately to have this cave created a
National Monument. Trans-continental travel between Salt Lake City and Ely,
Nev. should be routed by the way of Baker instead of Cobre as at present.
These caves are but six miles off the main route, they should be placed at the
disposal of the tourist.9
Heikes forwarded the Boak letter to the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey who in turn
submitted it to Arno B. Cammerer, Acting Director of the National Park Service. On June
22 Cammerer responded to Boak by observing that the account of his "visit to Lehman
Cave near Baker, White Pine County, Nevada, together with the suggestion that this cave
7. Boak to Davis, November 24, 1923, Cada C. Boak Collection, Nevada Historical Society, Reno.
8. Memorandum for District Forester, C.B. Morse, Assistant District Forester, June 8, 1921, 1440 - Inspection,
Year 1921, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-333/Location No.
88830), and Trexler, Lehman Caves . . . Its Human Story, p. 88.
9. Boak to Heikes, June 7, 1922, Central Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32, Record Group 79,
Records of the National Park Service, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
325
is worthy of being reserved as a national monument, is very interesting." Cammerer
elaborated further:
We note that you have in mind preparing a paper on this Cave and that you
have made photographs showing its interior. We would appreciate receiving a
copy of this paper and photographs in order that we might consider the
desirability of recommending that it be reserved as a national monument and
also a sketch map showing its location in reference to the highway between
Salt Lake City and Ely, Nevada, and the town of Baker.10
In his annual report for 1921 NPS Director Stephen T. Mather made mention of efforts to
have Lehman Caves established as a national monument. The report noted:
Attention of the service was directed to the advisability of reserving the Lehman
Cave, near Baker, Nev., as a national monument. It is reported this cave is
very extensive, and that when a little more work is done to make additional
chambers and caverns easy and safe of access it will rank with any of the
better-known caves in the United States. Lehman Cave is 6 miles off the main
traveled auto highway between Salt Lake City, Utah, and Ely, Nev.
No inspection of the cave has been made by park officers.11
Several months later on September 15, 1921, Boak sent photographs, maps, and a
"manuscript" describing the caves to Stephen T. Mather, Director of the National Park
Service and recommending that a three square mile area be set aside as a national
monument. Included were a set of 48 "flashlight photographs" showing "portions of the
interior ornamentation and decoration of the Caves." The manuscript, which was about to
be published by an eastern magazine, provided "a brief geological summary, and the
possible extent of these caves."
Boak also included a road map showing the main auto highways between Salt Lake City
and the Pacific Coast. He noted:
This map shows the location of Mt. Wheeler and the little town of Baker on the
Grand Central Highway connecting Salt Lake City with Ely, Nevada. Until quite
recently all transcontinental travel was compelled to follow the route of the
Lincoln Highway between those two points, the route of which traversed for a
long distance the southern end of the Great American Desert in Utah. That
portion of the Lincoln Highway, owing to the soft, deep and drifting sand, has
become almost impassible, and the Grand Central Highway which keeps farther
south and follows the ridge of higher ground crossing Utah, has been
completed and is being used very extensively in preference to the original route.
This Grand Central Route is also favored for the reason that it follows the route
of the Arrowhead Trail for quite a distance south from Salt Lake before
branching off to the west.
Boak also included a detailed map of the Snake Division of Nevada National Forest given
to him by Forest Ranger Graham S. Quate. Regarding this map, he observed:
10. Cammerer to Boak, June 22, 1921, Central Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32, RG 79, National
Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
11. Report of the Director of the National Park Service to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year
Ended June 30, 1921, and the Travel Season 1921 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1921), p. 53.
326
The entrance to the Cave is in the N.E. corner of the N.W. 1/4 of the N.W.
quarter of Section 15, T. 13 N. R. 69 E. M D B & M. The entrance to the
Cave is upon the public domain of the U.S., and so far as I was able to judge
without making an underground survey, the Cave as far as exploited is also on
the public domain of the U.S. There is patented farming and ranch land lying
to the east and extending to within perhaps 15 or 20 rods of the entrance to
the Caves. The Caves proper seem to lie northerly, southerly and westerly
from their entrance, and it would be my opinion that their general course would
be westerly and southwesterly. I discovered in Baker Creek Canyon, in Section
21, a large, open fissure in the limestone which is quite apt to prove to be
another entrance to these Caves. The Caves have not been explored beyond
the line of least resistance in that one general route, and I am confident from
geological conditions existing, that a few well placed shots of dynamite would
open up connections with other routes and levels fully as extensive as those
explored.
In conclusion, Boak urged Mather "to take speedy steps to have these Caves created a
National Monument, and preserved for the nature loving people of the U.S." He
recommended
that all unappropriated lands within Sections 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21 and
22 ... be set aside for that purpose. The mountain slope is liberally timbered
with Juniper and Pinyon Pine, and Lehman and Baker Creeks are attractive,
torrential mountain streams affording the best of Trout fishing.
I have traveled and am familiar with many of the better known Caves in the
U.S. I give it as my opinion that there are none as beautiful as these. Other
caves which have been thoroughly opened up, and explored are more extensive,
but I have no doubt but that with thorough exploration, many more miles of
underground passages are here to be thrown open. The Caves are so situated
on the route of the long desert drive between Salt Lake and the Coast, as to
form a veritable Oasis for rest and recreation for the desert-worn,
transcontinental tourist.12
Several days after writing to Mather, Boak informed Senator Tasker L. Oddie of Nevada,
his friend and fellow cave promoter, what he had done. Now everything, according to
Boak, depended upon the recommendations of the National Park Service to the President.
He noted that the three square mile area was the minimum amount of land that would be
acceptable and that the designated ground was "worthless save for grazing, and not very
good for that as it is on the Mountain slope." One point in favor of the proposed
monument was
that the Lincoln Highway between Salt Lake and Ely is being deserted very
rapidly by the tourist travel, in favor of the Grand Central Highway which
branches off from the Arrowhead Trail south of Salt Lake, and follows the ridge
of high ground across Utah, avoiding all the sand, and coming into Ely via
Osceola. This Grand Central Highway passes within six miles of the Caves; the
12. Boak to Mather, September 15, 1921, Central Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32, RG 79, National
Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C. Boak sent a duplicate set of these materials and enlarged
photographs to President Warren G. Harding.
327
road from the Highway to Baker is a boulevard and the balance of the distance
is all high gear driving.13
On October 3 Senator Oddie wrote to Mather in support of Boak's recommendations for
Lehman Caves. He commented that he had known "Boak for a along time" and found him
to be "a man of the highest character, ability and integrity." Oddie indicated his personal
"interest in seeing this great natural wonder of our State made accessible to tourists and
others who would be interested and educated by an opportunity to visit them."14
After reviewing the information submitted by Boak and Oddie, National Park Service officials
reacted favorably but noted the cavern was located within Nevada National Forest and thus
was under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Forest Service. On October 28 Acting NPS Director
Cammerer sent the materials to Chief Forester W.B. Greeley of the U.S. Forest Service for
his recommendation. He observed that judging "from the photographs, the formations in
these caves must be very beautiful and the caves extremely interesting."15
By late November 1921 the Forest Service had reviewed and approved Boak's
recommendations for establishing a Lehman Caves National Monument. The area of the
proposed monument, however, was reduced from three square miles to one square mile,
because of the "matter and limitations of appropriations" and the opposition of area
ranchers who demanded "a free passage up the creeks to grazing lands above." Boak
reluctantly supported the Forest Service recommendation in a letter to Forest Supervisor
McQueen on December 1:
I agree with you fully that the one thing most important just now is the creation
of the Monument with the least possible opposition; -and for the present at least,
to concentrate the attention of the public so far as possible, upon this one cave.
It is also quite possible that an over ambitious policy might tend to defeat the
whole undertaking. It is therefore no doubt best to favor the smaller segregation
and make more certain the success of our undertaking.16
In mid-December 1921 Secretary of Agriculture Henry C. Wallace, an lowan who had long
acquaintance with Boak, approved the recommendation to set aside Lehman Caves as a
national monument. On December 14 Boak wrote to a friend in Berkeley, California, that
the matter was
now in the hands of other Cabinet officers, and will no doubt go to President
Harding for his Proclamation, creating it a National Monument, in a few weeks.
I have put this through without assistance from any source, and am quite
naturally gratified over the favorable action the Government is taking....
Just now, you can explore it [the cave] for about a mile, in your dress suite and
silk hat and not get them soiled. It is clean as a palace. If you have traveled
extensively, I can best describe it to you by drawing comparisons. The Great
13. Boak to Oddie, September 21, 1921, Central Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32, RG 79, National
Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
14. Oddie to Mather, October 3, 1921, Central Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32, RG 79, National
Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
15. Cammerer to Greeley, October 28, 1921, Central Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32, RG 79,
National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
16. Boak to McQueen, December 1, 1921, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park.
328
Mammoth Caves, of Ky., are like a great big, overgrown, unpainted, unkempt
dilapidated BARN, as compared to a magnificent marble palace, when compared
with these Nevada Caves. Many caves are very much more extensive, but
none that I have seen can hold a candle to them from standpoint of profune
ornamentation, and beauty. The Luray Caverns of Virginia are the nearest to
being in the same class with our Nevada caves.17
ESTABLISHMENT OF LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL MONUMENT
On January 24, 1922, Lehman Caves National Monument was established by a
proclamation (Proclamation No. 1618; 42 Stat. 2260) signed by President Warren G.
Harding. Under the authority of the American Antiquities Act of 1906, the proclamation
declared the caves to be "of unusual scientific interest and importance" and that "the public
interests will be promoted by reserving these caves with as much land as may be
necessary for the proper protection thereof, as a National Monument." The proclamation
went on to state that there
are hereby reserved from all forms of appropriation under the public land laws,
subject to all prior valid adverse claims, and set apart as a National Monument,
all tracts of land in the State of Nevada shown as the Lehman Caves National
Monument on the diagram forming a part hereof.
The reservation made by this proclamation is not intended to prevent the use
of the lands for National Forest purposes under the proclamation establishing
the Nevada National Forest, and the two reservations shall both be effective on
the land withdrawn but by the National Monument hereby established shall be
the dominant reservation and any use of the land which interferes with its
preservation or protection as a National Monument is hereby forbidden.
Warning is hereby given to all unauthorized persons not to appropriate, injure,
deface, remove, or destroy any feature of this National Monument, or to locate
or settle on any of the lands reserved by this proclamation.
The diagram attached to the proclamation indicated that the monument area consisted of
593.03 acres, considerably less than had been recommended by Boak. A homestead entry
(Survey No. 149), comprising 46.97 acres, was located within the perimeter of the
monument. The diagram also showed the old and new roads connecting the monument
with the town of Baker and the "Entrance to Lehman Natural Cave."18
Upon establishment Lehman Caves National Monument was administered by the U.S.
Forest Service under "Uniform Rules and Regulations" adopted by the Secretaries of the
Interior, Agriculture, and War on December 28, 1906. These regulations had been
prescribed to carry out the provisions of the American Antiquities Act of 1906.19
17. Boak to Ames, December 14, 1921, Boak Collection, Nevada Historical Society, Reno.
18. Lehman Caves National Monument - By the President of the United States of America. A Proclamation
[No. 1618 - Jan. 24, 1922 - 42 Stat. 2260], in U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service,
Proclamations and Orders Relating to the National Park Service Up to January 1, 1945 (Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1947), pp. 227-28. A copy of the proclamation and diagram may be seen in Appendix Z.
19. Copies of the American Antiquities Act of 1906 and the "Uniform Rules and Regulations" may be seen
in Appendix AA.
329
ADMINISTRATION OF LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL MONUMENT UNDER THE U.S.
FOREST SERVICE: 1922-1933
The U.S. Forest Service publicized the new national monument in its March 1922 issue of
American Forestry. The article noted that for "twenty-five years these caves have been
known locally, and for some time individuals have been trying to gain control of them." The
action of President Harding, however, retained "them safely for all the people" and
prevented "the destruction of the many objects of scenic and scientific value." Lehman
Caves was the eleventh national monument to be established in a National Forest and the
first in Nevada.20
Dedication ceremonies for Lehman Caves National Monument were first planned for June
27, later to be postponed until July 4 and finally August 6. The reason for the
postponements was the desire of the Forest Service to coordinate the dedication with a
meeting of the Farm Bureau in Baker and thus hopefully secure that agency's support for
its plans for the cavern.
While plans for the dedication were being finalized, Boak wrote to Forest Supervisor
Alexander McQueen suggesting the name of the national monument be changed from
Lehman Caves to Roosevelt Caverns or Roosevelt Grottoes. On July 17 McQueen wrote
to Boak, rejecting the name change. His reasons for doing so were based on
conversations with several of the older settlers in the vicinity. McQueen stated that
while they feel it is possible that the caves would secure some advantage in the
way of advertising in connection with the Roosevelt Midland Trail highway, they
are more or less opposed to the idea, giving as their reasons that this cave
was discovered and developed practically to its present state by Mr. Lehman,
who spent considerable time and means in opening up the cave and making it
possible for the public to view it and that it has been known as Lehman Cave
for the past forty odd years; that a considerable amount of advertising has
resulted from the visits to the caves by people from all parts of the country,
which would be sacrificed.
When Boak arrived for the dedication, McQueen wanted to obtain the benefit of his "ideas
as to the proper administration of these caves and also to talk over" the "possibility of
arriving at a definite plan for securing funds with which to develop the caves."21
On August 2, 1922, four days before the dedication, the Tonopah Daily Times published
a copyrighted article by Boak entitled, "Lehman Caves - One of the World's Wonders
Found in Nevada for Future Generations." The article, which would later be revised and
printed as a brochure entitled, "Lehman Caves: The Wonder Under World," described the
cavern and its surroundings in embellished rhetoric:
Arriving at Lehman caves, six miles west of Baker ... on the Grand Central
highway and 66 miles southeast of the latter city, we park our cars 'neath pines
and cedar, by running water clear as crystal, fed by the snow-clad peaks of
Mount Wheeler, 13,047 feet, locally known as "Mount Jeff Davis," the highest
and one of the most majestic peaks wholly within the confines of Nevada. The
20. "Lehman Caves National Monument, American Forestry, XXVIII (March 1922), 140.
21. McQueen to Boak, July 17, 1922, L - Boundaries, Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records
Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539) and Ely Daily Times, June 23, 1922.
330
caves are in a light gray and white limestone on the eastern slope and near the
base of the mountain, at an elevation of 7,200 feet. . . .
The setting is one to enthuse and exhilarate the lover of nature and this big out-
of-doors, --nor are we doomed to enshroud our spirits in gloom as we plunge
into those underground palaces fashioned by that sculptor whose hand has
never wearied and whose fancy has known no bound; for truly the light of day
ne'er shone on scenes more sublimely beautiful or entrancingly fantastic and
grand than are here locked from the despoiling influences of the outer world.
A good auto road is completed from the highway to the caves, where is found
a pleasant camping ground. Good trout fishing is to be had, and a saddle trail
is being built to the summit of Mount Wheeler (13,047 feet), for the benefit of
those who wish to avail themselves of the magnificent view had from its lofty
height, through the clear desert atmosphere.22
On August 6, 1922, the dedication ceremonies were attended by some 500 people "at the
little park of cedars and pinions near the caves." A "level terrace had been graded out and
built up on the slope for a stage, and a beautiful flagpole erected in its center." Forest
Supervisor McQueen presided at the program, which featured the reading of congratulatory
telegrams from Nevada Senators Tasker L. Oddie and Key Pittman, government department
heads, members of the Nevada Supreme Court, Governor Emmet D. Boyle, and other state
officials. Colonel James G. Scrugham, the Nevada State Engineer who would be elected
Governor that November, gave the principal address, followed by a formal flag raising
ceremony featuring Boak, a company of the American Legion, and the singing of "The Star
Spangled Banner" by Mrs. Anthony Jurich of Ely. The crowd then toured the caves, 325
people passing through in one group. According to Boak, "we were so few and so
scattered that all got lost, save the guide, and he was several hours rounding up his flock."
The dedication ceremonies were preceded by a dance in the basement of the Baker Hotel
the night before and followed by a two-day ascent of Wheeler Peak by seven persons.
The seven persons who used pack and saddle horses until they arrived "under the last
steep pitch of the summit" were McQueen, Forest Rangers Graham S. Quate and C.R.
Townsend, the latter's wife, Miss Reorich, and Boak and his wife.23
During the months following the dedication of Lehman Caves National Monument there was
apparently confusion among some cave supporters as to whether the U.S. Forest Service
or the National Park Service was administering the caves. For instance, Scrugham, the
principal speaker at the dedication ceremonies, wrote to NPS Director Mather on September
21, 1922, requesting financial aid for Mr. and Mrs. Clarence T. Rhodes who had been
designated by the Forest Service as the official custodians of the caves earlier in the year.
Scrugham stated:
The development of the caves and care thereof has been handled in a most
admirable manner by Mr. and Mrs. C.T. Rhodes, of Baker, Nevada.
Mr. Rhodes advises me that in order to obtain money for their living expenses
it is necessary for himself and wife to go to McGill, Nevada, to work during the
winter. If there is any possible way to do so, I will ask that the National Park
22. Tonopah Daily Times, August 2, 1922, in Boak Collection, Nevada Historical Society, Reno. The
aforementioned revised article was written on October 17, 1922. C.C. Boak, "Lehman Caves: The Wonder Under
World," October 17, 1922, Special Collections Department, University Library, University of Nevada, Reno.
23. Boak, "Dedication of Lehman Caves National Monument," 100-11. The ascent of Wheeler Peak was
described at length by Boak in this article.
331
Service make a small appropriation for the care and some repair work at the
caves during the winter months while Mr. and Mrs. Rhodes are away. If no one
is left to guard the caves it is possible that vandals may do almost irreparable
damage therein.
I can personally testify to the splendid and unselfish work which has been done
by Mr. and Mrs. Rhodes and sincerely trust that your department will be able
to be of some assistance in the above mentioned matter. The Nevada
Legislature does not meet until the spring of 1 923, at which time it is proposed
to ask for some State assistance to protect the caves and to pay for a caretaker
therefor.
The National Park Service, for its part, forwarded the letter to the Forest Service
24
Lack of finances continued to plague the development and effective administration of the
national monument during its early years. In November 1923, for instance, Boak wrote to
a friend:
The last session of the State Legislature made available through a "game
preserve" appropriation, a little money which has been used in building cement
stairways Etc. in the caves, and no doubt more funds will be available from time
to time. The Government has completed an excellent highway to the caves,
from Baker, and the caves are being visited by increasing numbers as they
become better known.
I have no doubt that only the smallest portion of the cave has as yet been
explored; only the more easily accessible portions. An occasional narrow or low
passage when widened will no doubt lead to additional miles of caverns equally
as large and beautiful. But this will take money for exploration, and the
government is slow with appropriations.25
While Governor Scrugham was attempting both to enlarge and improve the national
monument, he encouraged the Rhodes' to donate the original opening of Lehman Caves
to the State of Nevada. Thus, on October 20, 1924, they donated a parcel of their
patented tract, 150 feet wide by 200 feet long, and containing 0.688 of an acre, to the
state. The conveyance was later amended by a formal instrument dated December 14,
1926.26
The operation of Lehman Caves National Monument was described at length by Assistant
District Forester R.E. Gery after an inspection on April 13-15, 1925. Since his visit four
years before there had "been considerable improvement in the interior of the cave," and the
entrance had "been inclosed by a small creditable looking building." The expenses for the
improvements, consisting "of clearing the passages, constructing wooden steps, and the
erection of the building at the entrance," had been paid for by the State of Nevada and
Clarence T. Rhodes, the caretaker. The state had expended $500 for material and labor.
Considerable additional improvements were necessary "as some of the planking is quite
24. Scrugham to Mather, September 21, 1922, and Cammerer to Scrugham, September 25, 1922, Central
Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32, RG 79, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington,
D.C.
25. Boak to Davis, November 24, 1923, Boak Collection, Nevada Historical Society, Reno.
26. Memorandum for the Director, March 25, 1944, A. van V. Dunn, Hydraulic Engineer, March 25, 1944, File
No. 660-057, Part I, Lehman Caves National Monument, Central Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32, RG
79, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
332
rotten." Since Rhodes secured all the revenue from the cave and the business was
growing, Gery felt he "should be expected to replace the rotten planking and otherwise
maintain the improvements in the interior of the cave provided the revenue warrants this."
The state had constructed a cement swimming tank, measuring 20 x 40 feet, on the parcel
deeded by Rhodes to the state. The state intended to install pipes for water heating
purposes. Water for the tank would be secured from irrigation water for the Rhodes ranch,
although Otto Meek, president of the Utah-Nevada Land and Livestock Company that had
purchased the old Baker Ranch was disputing the water rights claimed by Rhodes.
The state was contemplating construction "of creditable combined kitchen and dining rooms"
on the tract of land secured from Rhodes. The building would contain rest rooms, latrines,
and dressing rooms underneath the dining room. Rhodes would have charge of the
building and swimming pool and was "arranging for a public camp ground on his own land."
Gery described the existing Rhodes operation at Lehman Caves. Among other things he
noted:
The present building used as a kitchen is very much of a shack but the meals
are generally served under a bough covered arbor in the open. Mrs. Rhodes
is a very hard working woman, a good cook, and endeavors to please. Rhodes
is somewhat of a boaster of the wild west type and is not an ideal man for the
job. He and his wife have been at the cave for five years and until last winter
were required to secure employment each winter to carry them through the
following summer. Approximately $1,800 was secured from entrance fees last
year. A charge of $1.00 per person is made for adults with special rates for
children and large parties. He should be expected to keep a record of all
receipts from the cave. The Supervisor informs me he does this and reports
once a year. It is necessary on occasions to employ assistance in the way of
guides, although the services of one guide besides Rhodes are always available.
It is understood that this man depends almost entirely on tips. After five lean
years Rhodes should be permitted to have at least two or three fat ones, if
such is going to be the case, before any change is made. As long as he owns
the little ranch and the water he is, however, the logical person to look after the
cave.
According to Gery, Governor Scrugham had requested that the Forest Service provide "a
shelter from the sun for automobiles as practically no shade is available among the small
pinyon and juniper trees." Gery felt "that a shed 14 by 60 feet with metal top and siding
on three sides should be constructed on Government land if money is ever available."
Gery also visited the Lehman, Baker, and Snake Creek drainages in the vicinity of Lehman
Caves, commenting on their recreational potential. Concerning the Lehman Creek drainage,
he noted:
We rode up Lehman Creek as far as possible in a car and then walked until
our way was blocked by snow. We were able to get within about 2-1/2 miles
of the alleged lake. There is a fair camp site among some large yellow pine
trees which may be reached in dry weather by automobile. I believe that the
camp ground should be improved and a toilet, garbage pit, and possibly two
combined tables and benches installed.
The assistant district forester argued against some of Governor Scrugham's expansive road-
building plans for the area. His arguments were:
333
The Governor proposes to construct a road from near the George S. Robinson
ranch on the main highway to join the Forest boundary just east of the Cave
expecting the Service to construct the remainder of the road. This would
require construction of about 6.3 miles of road over the gravelly bench land and
construction would be very simple and inexpensive. The Service would be
expected to build .7 mile of road to the present Service road leading to the cave
from the south and east at a point about .3 of a mile from the cave. The cost
of the .7 mile would be about half of what it would cost to construct the 6.3
miles which the State proposes to construct. It is understood that the
Supervisor has been given $1 ,000 to construct a road from the cave to connect
with the Lehman Creek road and to improve the present road along the creek,
thus saving considerable distance to persons desiring to go up Lehman Creek.
It is suggested that an effort be made to induce the Governor to construct his
road the entire distance to the cave with the understanding that the Service
will construct the road from the cave to connect with the road up Lehman
Creek. The Service is not especially interested in the Governor's new road as
there is already one road to the cave.
In my opinion it would be an entire waste of money to construct a road to Lake
Teressa. It covers about 1-1/2 acres, has rocky shores, and is no way inviting.
Such a road would be decidedly expensive. Nothing but cobble stones and
slide rock would be encountered and there is no road material along the route.
The grades would be out of reason even with ample switchbacks. It is not seen
how grades of 20 per cent and over could be avoided although an engineer
might find means of reducing the grades below this figure. Even if the road
were constructed only the rara avis would travel over it.
Gery cryptically commented that he "went up Baker Creek past the celebrated sign writing
as far as possible in a car and then walked some distance." Here he noted:
The present camp grounds are among aspens which if not dead at the present
time will be so in the near future. The aspen along this creek is gradually
disappearing and with absolutely no reproduction. This may or may not be due
to overgrazing. In any event the aspen will afford shade but for a short time
and no improvements should be constructed at the two or three little aspen
groves which have been used for camping purposes in the past. There is,
however, a fair camp site among some cottonwoods and this camp ground
should be improved within the next two years. Baker Creek is a favorite fishing
stream although the fish are always small.
Snake Creek, according to Gery, had once been "the best fishing stream in the immediate
surrounding country but last year it was practically dry." He went up the Snake Creek
Road "to within 2-1/2 miles of the end" and made observations for camping sites and road
problems. He observed
two possible camp sites but they are so small it would hardly pay to improve
them. At the head of the road the Supervisor informs me there is a very
creditable camp site and this should be improved with toilets, garbage pit and
combined tables and benches if the stream again reaches normal. On the day
of our visit there was a good stream of water about 4 miles above the boundary
while at the boundary and for some distance above the stream was completely
dry.
334
The 7 miles of road up the creek is not inviting to Fords. Almost the entire
distance must be made in intermediate with a Dodge car and there are many
short pitches that must be made in low. In view of the allotment made no
attempt was made to secure proper grades. The work consisted principally of
clearing with considerable rock work. One of the rock cribbings is about gone
and considerable dirt is stuffing in from the upper side, making the road quite
narrow. The Supervisor has sufficient maintenance money to improve the worst
places but insufficient to clear the road of the sluffed material.2
During the summer of 1925 the State of Nevada completed various improvements on the
150- x 200-foot land parcel donated by Rhodes. Included were "a rather large kitchen and
dining room in connection thereto sanitary toilets for both men and women and a suite of
dressing rooms for both men and women." The pool was heated "with steam from a
boiler." The state also
constructed a pipe line from a ditch owned by Mr. Rhodes extending to the top
of the hill immediately south of the Caves at which point a water tank was
erected and this water system is used in connection with the State buildings for
operating the toilets and furnishing water for other domestic use in connection
with the buildings.28
In response to questions submitted by the district forester in Ogden in November 1925
Forest Supervisor Charles A. Beam explained the cost of operating Lehman Caves National
Monument and the Forest Service arrangements for managing the site. No improvements
had been "constructed exclusively for the direct benefit" of the monument, "although the
Lehman Creek road extending from Baker, Nevada, to Lehmans Cave has a direct bearing
upon the National Monument in that it furnishes good transportation facilities to and from
the Caves." The 7-mile road had cost $4,099.85 for construction and maintenance to date.
During 1925 the Lehman Caves Road was extended 3-1/2 miles up Lehman Creek "to a
very desirable camp ground which will be used almost exclusively by tourists visiting the
Cave and local residents for week end parties." The road construction had cost $8,121.48.
Although both roads were largely outside the monument boundaries, each had "a direct
connection with the Monument and perhaps the total cost of these projects should be
considered as improvements to the Monument."
Beam stated further that "no exclusive time is devoted by either the Forest Ranger or the
Forest Supervisor in the supervision" of the national monument. If a trip were made by
either man to the monument, it was "made in connection with other duties so therefore, no
time of either can be charged as being exclusively devoted to this project."
The national monument, according to Beam, had "not as yet yielded any revenue
whatsoever to the Government." The terms of the special use permit granted to Rhodes
as monument caretaker included:
The caretaker is permitted under the terms of the special use permit to charge
$1 per person for admittance to the cave and this sum he is allowed to retain
as compensation for his duties as caretaker. During the season of 1921 only
80 visitors registered at the Caves where as to date for this calendar year 2,135
visitors have registered which shows a very material increase in popularity for
27. Memorandum for the District Forester, April 20, 1925, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park.
28. Charles A. Beam, Forest Supervisor to District Forester, Ogden, Utah, March 12, 1926, L - Boundaries,
Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location
No. 9539).
335
this Monument. The terms of the special use permit further provide that where
parties of 5 or more are admitted to pass through the caves at one time a
special rate of $5 per party is the maximum amount which can be charged and
also that no charge for children accompanied by their parents or guardians
under the age of 12 years old will be made. The records of the caretaker show
that to date he has received $1,700 for admission fees which would indicate
that at least 435 persons have either been admitted free or taken care of by the
stipulation governing fees to be charged to parties of more than 5.29
In January 1926 Forest Supervisor Beam "made a careful inspection of the Caves" and
found that the "stairways and ladders are in a very good state of preservation." He noted
that a "well constructed house" had been "placed over the entrance of the Cave, the door
of which is kept locked at all times except when the Cave is being visited by tourists."
This precaution was necessary "to prevent damage to the Cave by irresponsible persons."
To "properly handle the management of the Cave" during the summer months, it was
necessary for Rhodes to hire at least one tour guide at his own expense. Since the fees
Rhodes received had "never adequately paid him for his services," Beam recommended
that the government "construct further necessary improvements and maintain the present
improvements rather than place this responsibility upon the caretaker."30
After a tour of Lehman Caves during the fall of 1926, C.N. Woods, assistant district
forester, made recommendations for the improvement of the cavern. The principal need
at the cave, in his judgment, was "electric lights."31
The operation and maintenance of Lehman Caves National Monument during the 1920s
were described in a lengthy letter from Mrs. Clarence T. (Beatrice) Rhodes to NPS Director
Mather in August 1928. The letter stated that the Rhodes had been at the caves since
1920, working "a great deal toward improving and advertising" them. When they had come
to the area in 1920 it had taken them ten days to find the caves on horseback as there
were no roads. They were amazed at "their wondrous beauty, altho vandals at that time
had destroyed & soiled it terribly." Mrs. Rhodes stated further:
We bought the little homestead here at the mouth of the caves from an old
fellow who had just proved upon it shortly and who turned people loose to do
as they pleased. There was an old cabin here that had been built by Abner
Lehman who discovered the caves yrs. before and squatted here, also a
remnant of an old orchard planted by him & nothing else. Mr. Rhodes & I have
worked like slaves here. We both guided in caves ... & discovered points
of interest to tourists. Candles were used for lights & we bought carbide lights
which are still in use. Our first yr. here we had 48 visitors in 1921. We
advertised and had pictures taken & literature distributed. We both worked at
McGill winters cooking for 85 men hiring a man to stay here till (Nov. to) Apr.
1st - and then came home & worked the 2nd yr. We had 287 in caves - the
29. Charles A. Beam, Forest Supervisor to District Forester, Ogden, Utah, November 24, 1925, L - Boundaries,
Nevada, 1911, Central Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32, RG 95, National Archives and Records
Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539).
30. Ibid, March 12, 1926, L - Boundaries, Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records
Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539).
31. Memorandum for the District Forester, C.N. Woods, Assistant District Forester, October 28, 1926, 1440
- Inspection, Year 1926, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 61-
333/Location No. 88830).
336
3rd 700 and so on till we finally, with Gov. Scrughams good help, had 3800
visitors in 1924. The Gov. took a very active interest in the caves sending
hundreds of visitors. For this he was severely criticized & lost all the votes in
this section. This country was dead & off the map when we came here really
- but these people resent our having built up their town which is 6 miles from
here & instead of being grateful they are resentful & jealous.
Mrs. Rhodes went on to explain that she and her husband had faced "an uphill pull" at
Lehman Caves. She observed:
During our 8 yrs. here we have built up a nice little resort here spending every
cent we earned here for improvements and have a string of saddle horses for
Mt. trip to Mt. Wheeler. Can accommodate about 50 to sleep and have a nice
dance pavilion & this season have built several log cabins & a larger lodge for
spring & fall as the season here gets so cold early in Oct. & have a larger
fire place to make it comfortable for guests. Now in order to do this
Mr. Rhodes took a position & went to Central America so we could get enough
money to build it up and make it saleable as I had a nervous breakdown 3 yrs.
ago and cannot endure as I did.
During the 1928 season Mrs. Rhodes handled the Lehman Caves resort alone "with very
able help as guides." A party had come to the property several times during the year,
indicating interest in its purchase. She elaborated:
We have in the 8 yrs. here spent $14,000 for our improvements, including our
ranch 12 acres under cultivation, cows, horses, & ranch equipment - for the
resort, beds, bedding, & tents, cabins, lamps for caves, etc. 3 years ago we
spent $5,000 improving & this yr. 5,000 more. I am asking $22,000 for the
place which has 46 acres. 1 2 acres fenced in orchard & alfalfa besides about
2 acres in the resort. The rest is as yet in primitive state. Our land is outside
the National Monument & free from any encumbrances. This party led me to
believe he was going to buy, & went so far as to take a trip to Arizona, Los
Angeles, and other points to interest friends of his etc. In the meantime he has
been undermining me & my interests & I have heard from very good authority
he is trying to evade buying my property and intending to lease the Govt,
property around me and get custody of the caves. My property is about 50 yds
from Cave entrance. This man has no money himself but is promoting this
proposition. We have had about 1200 visitors here to date this season and
travel will not increase until the roads are improved and the proper connections
made from here to the Zion National Park via Milford, Ut. I am anxious to see
people who can afford to make this into a big resort etc. take it over, but I
cannot see how they can justifiably ignore my personal right as the creator of
the project and owing to cost of everything here and shipping cost on things
sent into the place they can easily check up our expenditures in 8 years.
Accordingly, Mrs. Rhodes asked NPS Director Mather for financial and legal help. She
noted:
I am soliciting your good graces and protection and merely ask for fair play.
The man who is promoting this project is a public parasite himself and merely
trying to work himself into a soft job. Up to date we have had nothing but
worry & hard work & after we pay the staff it takes here in season & all our
bills my husband has had to work out every winter. That is why he has taken
this position in C.A. and will be gone a yr. at least. As it costs so much to live
here & develop the property I am respectfully submitting Senator Trasker
337
Oddie's name as a reference of our worthiness & also can send several others
who can justify my statements.32
In response to this letter Acting NPS Director Cammerer informed Mrs. Rhodes that he did
"not see how there is any possibility of Mr. Mather or anybody in the Park Service
cooperating in anything having to do with Lehman Caves." The national monument was
administered by the U.S. Forest Service and thus "entirely outside our jurisdiction." He
promised, however, that should the Park Service "hear of anybody who would be interested
in purchasing a homestead such as yours we would be glad to refer them to you."33
During the spring and summer of 1928 plans went forward for the expansion of the
"Lehman Caves Resort." At least ten log cabins and "a large garage to store automobiles"
were constructed under contract by Charles Davis to accommodate the growing number of
overnight tourists to the caves. The logs for the cabins reportedly came from the Baker
Creek drainage, and the roofing boards were apparently "cannibalized" from the
deteriorating flumes of the Osceola Ditch.34
Visitation to Lehman Caves remained steady in 1928 and 1929 and then declined during
the early 1930s as a result of the Great Depression. From January to October 10, 1928,
there were a total of 1 ,447 visitors. It was noted that most of the visitors "were through
tourists who were either going to or coming from the Pacific Coast." Few local people
visited the cave, because "practically everyone here has visited the cave during former
seasons." Mrs. Rhodes reported to Forest Service officials, however, that "she had a very
excellent season because of patronage of local residents coming to the caves and
occupying her house-keeping cabins and tents and holding week-end parties and dances
there." According to her, business at the cave was "far superior to any previous season."
Forest Service officials looked forward to an increase of visitation in 1929, because the
Lincoln Highway from McGill to Wendover would be completed. This "Eastern connection
with a transcontinental highway" was expected to "bring a flood of tourists through this part
of the State, many of whom will visit Lehman Cave while passing through."35
From November 11, 1928, to October 1, 1929, some 1,552 persons toured Lehman Caves,
according to Mrs. Rhodes, who again operated the "resort" by herself. Three pupil groups
toured the caves that year from Baker School (20 students on March 31), Aurum School
(10 students in May), and Ruth High School (30 students in June). The students from the
32. Mrs. C.T. Rhodes to Mather, [ca. August 1, 1928], Central Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32,
RG 79, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C. Mrs. Rhodes enclosed a brochure on
Lehman Caves and several poems she had written, copies of which may be seen in the Nevada Historical Society,
Reno.
33. Cammerer to Mrs. C.T. Rhodes, August 4, 1928. Central Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32, RG
79, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
34. Ely Record, March 2, 1928, and Memorandum, Regional Director, Western Region to Acting Assistant
Director, Park Historic Preservation, March 12, 1975, H34, National Survey and National Landmarks, and Parts I
and II, Historic Structures Report, Rhodes Cabin, April 8 and November 1, 1965, H30, Historic Preservation, Rhodes
Cabin, Central Files, Great Basin National Park. One of the ten cabins remains near the present Great Basin
National Park Visitor Center and is known as the Rhodes Cabin. During the 1930s the structure was used as living
quarters by National Park Service personnel and still later for storage. During 1966-68 the cabin was moved to its
present location, restored, and placed on a concrete foundation. In 1975 the Rhodes Cabin was placed on the
National Register of Historic Places.
35. CA. Beam, Forest Supervisor to District Forester, Ogden, Utah, October 12, 1928, and enclosure, L -
Boundaries, Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-
240/Location No. 9539). Monthly visitation statistics for 1928 were: January - 2; February - 4; March - 46; April
- 79; May - 53; June - 311; July - 388; August - 330; September - 185; and October through the 10th - 9).
338
Baker and Aurum schools paid 25 cents each for their tours, while those from Ruth paid
50 cents.36
During the period from October 6, 1929, to March 6, 1930, a total of 134 (98 adults, 36
children) people toured the cave. The tour fees were $1 for adults and 50 cents for
children. Mr. and Mrs. Rhodes were gone during this period, and the tours were given by
unnamed "caretakers."
Some 1,133 persons toured the cave between March 6 and October 6, 1930. The cave
visitors consisted of 942 adults (full fare), 84 children (half fare), 26 Boy Scouts and 75 Girl
Scouts (quarter fare), and 6 escorts (half fare). In addition, free complimentary tours were
given to twelve Forest Service personnel, six university "heads" from the United States, and
one from Japan.
In addition to submitting these visitation totals to Forest Service officials on October 12,
1930, Mrs. Rhodes informed them of cave improvements that had been completed. She
observed:
During years of 1929 and 1930 have reinforced steps all thru caves. Also put
new ones in as needed during different intervals through season. We do this
from time to time, thus keeping them safe and easy of access at all times, as
we find it unwise to tear up any of stairs during tourist season. We will go over
entire cave thoroughly during winter months and put all stairs in good shape for
coming season.37
The following year on October 27, 1931, Forest Supervisor C.A. Beam informed his
superiors that 1,048 visitors had toured Lehman Caves between October 15, 1930, and
October 15, 1931. He commented further:
Caves are in safe and good repair, steps all reinforced since close of last
season. A few minor things will be gone over during winter, and left in good
shape for coming season.
As a result of the Great Depression, the Rhodes were forced in 1932 to readjust their
resort rates downward "to conform to present-day conditions." A copy of the rates for the
housekeeping cabins (furnished and unfurnished), deluxe cabins, meals, and saddle and
pack horses may be seen on the following page. Despite the rate adjustments, however,
only 532 persons toured the cave during 1932.39
36. Ibid, September 26, 1929, and enclosure, L - Boundaries, Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and
Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539).
37. Mrs. C.T. Rhodes to C.A. Beam, Forest Supervisor, October 12, 1930, L - Boundaries, Nevada, 1911,
RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539).
38. Memorandum for Regional Forester, C.A. Beam, Forest Supervisor, October 27, 1931, L - Boundaries,
Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location
No. 9539).
39. C.J. Olsen, Forest Supervisor to Regional Forester, July 21, 1932, L - Boundaries, Nevada, 1911, RG
95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539). In
1932-33 Rhodes had a Forest Service permit to graze 22 horses on national forest lands.
339
LEHMAN CAVES RESORT RATES
July 1932
CABINS:
For H.K. Cabins fully furnished
with dishes, stoves, cut wood,
Linens, etc.:
Per niaht
Per week
Per month
2 people
3 "
4 "
$2.00
2.50
3.00
$ 8.00
10.00
12.00
$25.00
30.00
35.00
De Luxe Cabins-
Sleeping only:
for one
" two
" three
" four
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
(also weekly and monthly
rates, where board is
purchased, commencing
@ $3.50 per week for 1 )
Unfurnished 2-room H.K.
Cabins, incl. 1 bed, for 1 or 2 - $1 .00 per night
mattress, stove wood, etc., for 3 or 4 - 1.50 per night
but no other furniture:
$1 .00 per night.
Same as above but 1-room
with 2 single beds
MEALS:
.350, .600, .750, and $1.00, to suit all tastes and purses.
Pure, fresh milk and cream on hand at all times
SADDLE & PACK HORSES:
To guests at the Resort, horse and saddle, without guide, $2.50 per day.
Pack horse - 2.00 " "
Special trip to Mt. Wheeler, highest peak in Nevada, 13,047 ft. above sea
level, including lunch and guide service - $5.00 per person.
Excellent fishing may be enjoyed in Baker and Lehman Creeks.
All roads leading to Lehman Caves are in excellent condition, either from
Utah by way of Beaver and the Arrowhead Trail, or from the other direction
by way of Ely, Nevada.
340
U.S. FOREST SERVICE PLANS FOR LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL MONUMENT: 1930-
1933
During 1930 the U.S. Forest Service began to develop plans for the modernization and
improvement of Lehman Caves as "a unit in the attractions of the southern Utah area of
scenic wonders." The plans were initiated after Chief Forester Robert Y. Stuart visited the
caves during the summer of 1930 and "expressed an opinion that, if they [Rhodes' property]
were given to the government modern lighting and improvements would be installed at once
and a federal road built from Ely through Baker, to the caves, and on to Beaver, Utah."
Congressman Samuel S. Arentz of Nevada indicated that he "could get federal money to
follow the Chief Forester's plans if the lands [Rhodes' property] were deeded to the
government." Accordingly, in early February 1931 the White Pine County Chamber of
Mines and Commerce took a 90-day option to purchase the Rhodes' property, buildings,
horses, and other equipment for $15,000. After acquisition the county planned to deed the
property to the State of Nevada which in turn would hand it over to the federal government.
The chamber established a Lehman Caves Development Committee to handle all receipts
from the sale and make expenditures of funds received for maintenance and development
of the caves and nearby scenic attractions.40
Steps were taken to have the Nevada state legislature enact the required legislation to
enable the county commissioners to issue bonds for the purchase of the Rhodes' property
and deed the lands to the federal government. Commenting on these plans, the Ely Daily
Times stated on February 13, 1931:
The caves themselves have already been designated as a national monument,
but owing to the fact that the property surrounding them is privately owned, the
government has not included them in its improvement program of national scenic
attractions. But with the culmination of present plans there can be no question
about the government spending a considerable sum of money in improvements
of the caves and in building good roads to connect them with other national
monuments, parks and places of recreational interest.41
To publicize its efforts the White Pine Chamber of Mines and Commerce published a
brochure entitled, "Nevada's Caveland," for distribution by the Board of Commissioners of
White Pine County. The pamphlet, which described the Lehman Caves and its vicinity in
glowing terms, stated:
This district might well be designated Nevada's Caveland. To the southeast,
where the sagebrush plains merge into majestic Mount Wheeler, also known to
many as Mt. Jeff Davis, the highest peak entirely with the state, providing the
picturesque contrast of wooded slopes and mountain streams looming against
a background of rangeland, are Lehman Caves, Nevada's most interesting
attraction. Here Nature has done double duty, creating scenic splendors and
building beauty beneath the surface, as well as above.
The vicinity of Lehman Caves is a veritable museum of natural attractions and
places of interest. A trip can be made to the summit of Mt. Wheeler, mostly
by the horseback route, on steeds to be obtained at the Cave resort. From this
point there is a view of magnificent distances, into several of the adjoining
40. Salt Lake Tribune, February 8, 1931, and Olsen to Pittman, November 11, 1933, L - Boundaries, Nevada,
1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No.
9539).
41. Ely Daily Times, February 13, 1931.
341
states, and the glaciers and glacier fed lakes are to be visited. There are
ancient Indian rock writings and the remains of the dwellings of a pre-historic
race, for the scientist, rippling brooks for the fisherman and game in season
for the hunter. Near to, and possibly connected with Lehman Cave, although
not yet fully explored, is another cave containing pictograph rock writings and
signs, which show, according to some authorities, that a Mongol civilization
existed in this country prior to the Indians.42
It is interesting to note that Senator Oddie again attempted to involve the National Park
Service in the negotiations to acquire the Rhodes' property. In response to his overtures,
NPS Director Albright stated on March 13, 1931:
As you know Lehman Caves National Monument is under the jurisdiction of the
Forest Service, Department of Agriculture. I do not know just what to
recommend. However, I feel quite certain that Major Stuart, Chief Forester,
would be willing to accept the lands offered and suggest that you write to Major
Stuart transmitting the letter from the White Pine Chamber of Mines and
Commerce. The land referred to seems to be very vital to the proper
development of the Lehman Caves National Monument and certainly should be
added.43
Although the legislature authorized White Pine County to issue bonds for purchase of the
Rhodes' property on March 19, 1931, "economic conditions" associated with the Great
Depression prevented the county from issuing the bonds and purchasing the land. Finally
in late July 1933, the White Pine County commissioners authorized "the issue of $15,000
worth of bonds for purchase of the land owned by C.T. Rhodes at the mouth of Lehman
Caves." When they passed the authorization measure the county commissioners stated
that they did so believing that "this county would receive in revenue many times more from
the purchase price of the land, both from the tourists that would be drawn to the caves,
and from wages which would be spent in road development in the vicinity of the caves."
An agreement for the purchase of the property was negotiated with the Rhodes on July
27."
The Rhodes' land, together with the water rights to Cave Spring, was formally deeded to
White Pine County on September 13, 1933. Five days later the property was conveyed to
the federal government. At the time of the transfer the White Pine County commissioners
assumed responsibility for having the 150- x 200-foot plot (0.668 acres) at the entrance to
the cave transferred from the State of Nevada to the federal government at the next
session of the state legislature.45 On March 27, 1935, the state legislature authorized the
Nevada State Board of Control to convey formally the 150- x 200-foot plot to the federal
government under authority contained in Assembly Bill 218. Thus, the federal government
finally had control of all lands within the one square mile area originally designated as
42. "Nevada's Caveland," Published by White Pine Chamber of Mines and Commerce for the Board of
Commissioners of White Pine County, Ely, Nevada [1931], Central Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32, RG
79, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
43. Albright to Oddie, March 13, 1931, Central Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32, RG 79, National
Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
44. Ely Record, July 30, 1933. Included in the purchase were 46 carbide lights and 85 pounds of carbide.
C.A. Beam, Chairman, Lehman Cave Development Committee to C.T. Rhodes, December 2, 1933, L - Boundaries,
Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location
No. 9539).
45. C.J. Olsen, Forest Supervisor to Regional Forester, September 28, 1933; L - Boundaries, Nevada, 1911,
RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539).
342
Lehman Caves National Monument.46 The agreement relating to purchase of the Rhodes'
property that was signed on July 27, 1933, occurred during the period between issuance
of Executive Order 6166 transferring administration of Lehman Caves National Monument
to the National Park Service and the time the NPS took immediate charge of the land.
Thus, the Forest Service took steps for the administration of the monument during the
interim period before the Park Service assumed charge. Clarence T. Rhodes was
appointed as temporary custodian and granted permission to collect fees of $1 .00 for adults
and 35 cents for children to provide tours through the cave. The Rhodes' also continued
to operate the resort cabins and food service facilities.47
In a letter to Vail Pittman, who was the editor of the Ely Daily Times and a brother to
Nevada Senator Key Pittman, on November 11, 1933, Forest Supervisor Olsen elaborated
on the Forest Service plans for Lehman Caves "up to October 1st, at which time it was
supposed that the Park Service would take charge" of the national monument. After it had
appeared quite certain that White Pine County would purchase the Rhodes' property, the
Forest Service, according to Olsen, "went ahead with the plans for the exclusive
development of the Cave and the surrounding scenic attractions." The plans, some of
which would be continued by the National Park Service, were:
1. Topographic map was made of the cultural and physical features, which
included a type map of the ground covered and a survey of the
proposed hydro-electric plant. The map was finished and the stakes
were set for the hydro-electric plant.
2. Survey was made of the proposed pipe line for water for use at and
near the cave. The stakes were set and a profile made of the survey.
The survey was complete in every detail.
3. A survey was made of the telephone line from the Robison ranch to the
Baker Ranger Station; stakes were set and it was anticipated to continue
the survey to the cave. Telephone wire and all materials except posts
and poles, which we would obtain locally, were available.
4. Survey had previously been made of the interior of Lehman Cave and
the plans were quite thoroughly developed as to the kind of work that
would be done inside of the cave, which included a better passage-
way through the cave. It was proposed to make an outlet at the far end
of the cave so that people going in the cave would not necessarily have
to go back the same way they came in. It was proposed to light the
cave and bring out the details of the beautiful formations therein.
Several thousand pounds of suitable blasting powder was on hand.
46. Charles West, Acting Secretary of the Interior to Secretary of Agriculture, November 15, 1935, Central
Files, 1907-36, File 12-1, Part I, Parks, Reservations and Antiquities, National Monuments, Lehman Caves, Record
Group 48, Records of the Office of the Secretary of the Interior, National Archives and Records Administration,
Washington, D.C., and "History of Lehman Caves National Monument," n.d., Vertical Files, Great Basin National
Park. Confusion over these land transactions continued until 1945. For further data on the continuing legal
questions relating to the transactions see Trexler, Lehman Caves . . . Its Human Story, pp. 31-33, and Lands,
Buildings, Roads & Trails, Lands (General), Lehman Caves National Monument, File No. 601, Part I, and Siler to
Richey and Vint, March 18, 1947, File No. 630, Roads, Lehman Caves National Monument, Central Files,
Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32, RG 79, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C. A
copy of a map showing these transactions may be seen on the following page.
47. C.J. Olsen, Forest Supervisor, By Ernest R. Hill, Acting to P.P. Patraw, April 26, 1934, Vertical Files,
Great Basin National Park.
343
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Electric blasting caps were available and machinery, such as air
compressor and blasting machines, etc., were available.
5. It was proposed to construct a truck trail up into the head of Baker
Creek and one up into the head of Lehman Creek to Estelle Lake. This
would make it possible to get to the top of Mount Wheeler very easily.
... We had planned to continue the Lehman Cavern Development
Committee, which would handle all receipts from the cave and make
expenditures of the money received for the maintenance and
development of the cave and surrounding scenic attractions.48
When the Rhodes' left Lehman Caves in September 1933, the Forest Service appointed
Otto W. Nielsen as temporary custodian of the national monument. He was paid with
funds from a Civil Works Administration allotment.49
While employing Nielsen at the cave the Forest Service made provisional arrangements
with Mr. and Mrs. Frank Natusch to act as custodians of the national monument and
provide visitor services beginning the following spring. These arrangements were described
by Forest Supervisor Olsen in a memorandum dated September 18, 1933:
Frank Natusch has been working for us on ECF since about June 1st and has
demonstrated his efficiency, loyalty, honesty and initiative, and it is, therefore,
proposed to employ Frank Natusch as custodian of Lehman Cave, beginning in
the spring of 1934. It is considered inadvisable to transfer Mr. Natusch to
Lehman Cave this fall for the short remaining period since his services are badly
needed here in Ely and because of the fact that he has been very successful
in handling the work that he is responsible for. It is, therefore, proposed to hire
someone to take over the custodianship of the Cave until such time as the
ECW camp is transferred to Lehman Cave. Should this not happen it may be
necessary later to transfer Frank Natusch to Lehman Cave as custodian. At the
present time we do not contemplate keeping a man at Lehman cave year long.
Lehman Cave is located some distance from hotel accommodations. There are
no facilities for obtaining meals or rooms at either Garrison or Baker and it is,
therefore, necessary that some temporary arrangement be made so as to be
able to provide meals and lodging at Lehman Cave for the tourists that come
to the Cave. According to Mr. Rhodes' report, there have been 612 people visit
Lehman Cave up until the present time during 1933. When the transfer of land
was made from Mr. Rhodes to White Pine County the hotel furnishings were not
included. It is realized that we desire to have extensive changes in connection
with the hotel and cabin accommodations at Lehman Cave and it is proposed
to, if possible, eventually issue a permit to some responsible, reliable person for
a hotel, store, etc. at the Cave. In the mean time, however, it is necessary that
temporary arrangements be made so as to be able to accommodate the
traveling public. It is, therefore, proposed to issue a free special use permit to
Mrs. Frank Natusch for the hotel and cabins at Lehman Cave. Frank Natusch
will act as custodian of the Cave and will also care for the buildings at the
48. Olsen to Pittman, November 11, 1933, L - Boundaries, Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and
Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539).
49. C.J. Olsen, Forest Supervisor, By Ernest R. Hill, Acting to Patraw, April 26, 1934, Vertical Files, Great
Basin National Park. In 1926 Neilson had moved to the Baker area to help the Bellander brothers herd sheep.
By the early 1930s he was teaching school in Baker and serving part-time as a tour guide at Lehman Caves.
Personal interview with Sunny Roberts, Baker, Nevada, September 17, 1988.
345
Cave and to recreational clean-up and patrol in Baker Creek and Lehman
Creek. It is proposed to pay Frank Natusch $100 per month to act as
custodian of the Cave. In order for us to be able to see that the public is
taken care of it will be necessary for Frank Natusch and Mrs. Frank Natusch
to purchase the hotel furnishings at the Cave, which Mr. Rhodes has offered for
sale at $300.00. This includes piano, hotel range, steam table, chairs, tables,
beds, cots, bedding, dishes, heating stoves, etc.
TRANSFER OF ADMINISTRATION OF LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL MONUMENT FROM
THE U.S. FOREST SERVICE TO THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE: 1933
Despite his protestations to the contrary, NPS Director Albright demonstrated considerable
interest in Lehman Caves. In October 1931, for instance, he requested Roger W. Toll, the
Superintendent of Yellowstone National Park who during off-seasons investigated proposed
park and monument areas and boundary extensions, to visit Lehman Caves.51 On
November 5, 1931, Toll toured Lehman Caves and on February 18, 1932, submitted notes
to Albright that he thought might "be of interest in connection with the caves administered
by the National Park Service." In terms of accessibility, general characteristics, and
visitation of the national monument, Toll noted:
The road brings automobiles to within a 100 yards of the entrance to the caves.
Visitors are taken on a trip of perhaps a mile in the cave. Practically the same
route is retraced, making the total distance about two miles. These are "cave
miles" and the actual distance is something less.
The cave contains some interesting drip formations including columns,
stalactites, varying in size from small, slender ones to others that are heavy and
massive, "bacon rind" or "Navajo blanket" folds of varying tints, and onyx.
There is a type of flat, palate-shaped formation that is unusual. Some of the
stalactites are active and dripping water; others are dead. Many of the
stalactites give a musical tone when struck, and this property is fully utilized by
Mr. Rhodes, who guides most of the parties through the caves.
The caves are fairly accessible and dry. There are a few low ceilings but no
crawling is necessary. . . . The number of visitors in 1931 was 1048 to
November. The admission charge is $1.00 per person. This does not make
a very substantial income for Mr. and Mrs. Rhodes, but they take in about an
equal amount from the meals and lodging furnished.
Toll went on to list the caves under "national control, in the order of importance of their
natural features and use by the public." First on his list was Carlsbad Caverns which he
described as "by far the best in formation, size, display and convenience of access."
Second on his list, however, was Lehman Caves. He observed that Lehman "probably
takes second place in variety and interest of formation, but it is not lighted nor well
developed." Because "of its remote location" and distance from "heavily travelled
highways," it had few visitors. In view of the Park Service policy "that the outstanding
50. Memorandum, C.J. Olsen, Forest Supervisor, September 18, 1933, and Olsen to Parker, December 14,
1933, L- Boundaries, Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession
No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539).
51. Moskey to Toll, October 16, 1931, Central Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave, 1921-32, RG 79, National
Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
346
example of a particular type of scenery should be a national park," Toll felt that "Carlsbad
Cavern is the only cave needed or desireable for the park system."52 Toll's report was
forwarded to Superintendent Thomas Boles of Carlsbad Caverns National Park for his
perusal and then returned to the Washington Office for filing.
On June 10, 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 6166, providing
for a major reorganization of the federal government. Among other things, the order, which
would become effective in sixty days, stated:
All functions of administration of public buildings, reservations, national parks,
national monuments, and national cemeteries are consolidated in an Office of
National Parks, Buildings, and Reservations in the Department of the Interior,
at the head of which shall be a Director of National Parks, Buildings, and
Reservations; except that where deemed desirable there may be excluded from
this provision any public building or reservation which is chiefly employed as a
facility in the work of a particular agency.
Thus, all national monuments, including Lehman Caves, were transferred to the renamed
National Park Service.53
Forest Service officials were unhappy with the transfer of the national monuments from its
jurisdiction. One of the monuments the bureau attempted to keep under its administration
was Lehman Caves. On September 8, 1933, the regional forester in Ogden submitted
information to the Chief Forester in Washington, arguing that Forest Service administration
of the monument was more economical than would be the case under another federal
bureau. Among other things, he noted:
Up until the present time, the cave has been handled by the Forest Service
through an agreement with a reliable special use permittee, and it is through the
efforts of the Forest Service that Lehman Cave has been protected from
exploitation and preserved in its natural condition.
The ranger in charge of the district lives at Baker, six miles distant from the
cave, and the Forest Supervisor's headquarters are located at Ely, approximately
68 miles from the cave, and frequent inspections are made in connection with
the handling of other Forest Service business. The cave is centrally located
with respect to the Baker ranger district, which includes the Snake Division and
the Mt. Moraja Division of the Nevada National Forest, thus making supervision
by the ranger and the supervisor very economical.
The Forest Service now has plans under way for further development. It is
proposed to construct a hydro-electric plant of sufficient size to illuminate the
cave and the grounds and surrounding administrative buildings. Great care has
been and is being exercised for the lighting and future excavation of the cave.
It is proposed to construct a pipe line to divert water for domestic use and
52. Toll to the Director, National Park Service, February 18, 1932, Central Files, Monuments, Lehman Cave,
1921-32, RG 79, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
53. U.S. Congress, House, Message from the President of the United States Transmitting an Executive Order
for Certain Regroupings, Consolidations, Transfers, and Abolitions of Executive Agencies and Functions Thereof,
H. Doc. 69, 73d Cong., 1st Sess., 1933, pp. 2-3. Further data on this executive order may be found in U.S.
Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Administrative History: Expansion of the National Park Service
in the 1930s, by Harlan D. Unrau and G. Frank Williss, September 1983, pp. 43-74.
347
culinary purposes at the cave. Campgrounds at the cave and on Lehman
Creek and Baker Creek nearby will be improved.
In Baker Creek and Lehman Creek there are rather extensive stands of
merchantable timber and it is planned to develop the truck trail system so as
to utilize the timber resources without destroying in the least any of the natural
beauty.
The cave must have yearlong supervision.
Administration by the Forest Service will be more economical and practicable
than by a separate organization. In fact it would seem unreasonable to set up
another Federal organization to handle this cave.54
By October 1933 the Forest Service had apparently given up the struggle to retain Lehman
Caves under its administration. On October 14, for instance, Forest Supervisor Olsen
informed the White Pine Chamber of Mines and Commerce:
Undoubtedly you have heard by this time that the National Park Service will
assume charge of Lehman Cave in the near future. This means that there will
be a complete change in administration. The National Park Service, as you
know, is part of the Interior Department; and we will therefore lose control of
Lehman Cave. It will be the responsibility of the National Park Service to
develop the Cave; and while I feel very sorry about losing control of the Cave
since the Forest Service was very much interested in the development of it, at
the same time, I think the National Park Service will be in a good position to
properly develop and handle the Cave.55
The National Park Service assumed administration of Lehman Caves National Monument
on December 2, 1933. The monument was placed under the supervision of the Preston
P. Patraw, superintendent of Zion National Park. Otto W. Neilsen, who was already serving
as temporary custodian of the monument under the Forest Service, was continued in that
position. On April 27, 1934, he was formally assigned "as park ranger in charge" of the
monument on a temporary basis. (Copies of two maps of Lehman Caves National
Monument prepared in 1934 may be seen on the following pages).56
54. Regional Forester to The Forester, Washington, D.C., September 18, 1933, L - Boundaries, Nevada,
1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No.
9539).
55. Olsen to White Pine Chamber of Commerce and Mines, October 14, 1933, L - Boundaries, Nevada,
1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No.
9539).
56. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Centennial Edition, National Park Sen/ice Officials,
March 1, 1972, p. 81, and "Report on Lehman Caves Nat'l. Monument, Nevada, Civil Works Projects," by Thomas
C. Parker, Assistant Superintendent, N.P.B. & R, December 14th, 1933, Central Files, 1933-49, National Monuments,
and Patraw to The Director, April 23, 1934, Central Files, 1933-49, Lehman Caves National Monument, General,
Part I, RG 79, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
348
350
CONTINUING FRICTION BETWEEN THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE AND THE U.S.
FOREST SERVICE OVER ADMINISTRATION OF LEHMAN CAVES
Despite the relative cooperation exhibited by National Park Service and U.S. Forest Service
officials during the transfer of administration of Lehman Caves National Monument in 1933,
friction continued between the two bureaus over questions of development and operation
of the caves and associated visitor services. County newspapers and political interest
groups were drawn into the controversy. The Forest Service apparently attempted to utilize
the debate in an effort to regain administrative oversight of the national monument.
Bureau correspondence indicates that Forest Service officials were hopeful that Lehman
Caves would be returned to their administrative jurisdiction. On March 21, 1935, for
instance, Regional Forester R.H. Rutledge informed the Chief Forester of developments at
the caves and recommended a course of action to be taken by the bureau pending the
outcome of deliberations by the National Resources Board as to the ultimate issue of
administrative jurisdiction of the national monument:
The Executive Order of June 10, 1933, has temporarily at least given the
National Park Service administration of the National Monument. On September
18, 1934, White Pine county deeded to the U.S. Department of Agriculture the
above-mentioned private land amounting to 46.97 acres which is within the
boundaries of the National Monument. Mr. Kneipp's L Donations, Lehman Cave,
letter of July 19 was explained to the White Pine county commissioners, so that
both this office and the Supervisor's office made it plain to the county
commissioners that the Department of the Interior now has jurisdiction over the
cave. Nevertheless, the county commissioners insisted on having a deed made
to the Department of Agriculture. The land was not part of the withdrawal for
the National Monument as it was privately owned at the time and, of course,
has not been so designated since.
A side camp of the Park Service C.C.C. camp has been working on the cave
this winter and is now building a road partly on the tract of land deeded to the
Department of Agriculture; in fact, there cannot be proper development of the
cave without getting onto this deeded land.
The question arises as to whether we should issue a special use permit to the
Park Service for this land or just allow the situation to remain in status quo until
a more definite and logical policy regarding the administration of National
Monuments has been agreed upon. This National Monument is 110 miles from
a railroad and 250 miles from the nearest National Park headquarters. Yet it
is an integral part of the Nevada National Forest with a National Forest Ranger
headquarters within five miles.
This case is a good illustration of the illogical situations resulting from the
interpretation placed on Executive Order of June 10, 1933.
The National Resources Board may be interested since this strengthens their
argument ... to the effect that the major breakdown of the responsibility
between administrative agencies should be areal rather than functional. "In the
development and carrying out of plans for specific areas there should be
centralized responsibility for all the various functional aspects of land
administration, which should rest with the agency responsible for the major form
of land use in the area."
351
My recommendation is that the Park Service be allowed to develop the area but
that there be no official release of jurisdiction over this area by the Forest
Service, pending the outcome of the recommendations of the National
Resources Board.57
Other Forest Service officials also sent messages to the Chief Forester regarding their
irritation that Lehman Caves had been transferred to the National Park Service. One such
memorandum was sent by Associate Forester E.A. Sherman on March 28, 1935. He
observed:
Here is a beautiful example of the absurdity of following functional instead of
areal lines in organization. ... It would take an Executive Order to add the
donated lands (46.97 acres) to the National Monument; an Executive Order
could also place the National Monument under the jurisdiction of the Department
of Agriculture, thereby bringing the Monument under the same jurisdiction
desired by the donors and to a jurisdiction to which the donors refused to deed
the lands, would, to say the least, be doing violence to the amenities which
usually accompany the acceptance of a gift.
The controversy flared in July 1936 when the White Pine Chamber of Commerce and
Mines passed a resolution deploring the "lack of accommodations for tourists and other
visitors at the Lehman Caves National Monument." The resolution contended that such
conditions detracted from travel to the cave and that White Pine County had purchased the
Rhodes property with the understanding that accommodations and improvements would be
made at the monument. Thus, the chamber requested "that the National Park Service
through its proper officers" take "the necessary steps, at the earliest possible time, to
provide the improvements requested."59
On August 29, 1936, Ely Daily Times editor Vail Pittman printed an editorial that fueled the
controversy further. The editorial, entitled "Neglect of Lehman Caves," ended with the
warning that if the Park Service did not make improvements at the caves the people of
White Pine County would petition their congressional representatives to transfer
administration of the national monument from the Park Service back to the U.S. Forest
Service. The editorial, which caused the Park Service increased concern because Vail and
Senator Key Pittman were brothers, stated:
The people of this county are becoming very much upset on account of what
has happened to Lehman caves. Several years ago White Pine county
purchased some private lands adjoining the caves at a price of $15,000. This
land was deeded to the federal government with the idea that the caves would
be made a national monument and developed in keeping with their merit. The
county commissioners were led to believe this by a very high official in the Park
Service. Unfortunately, this splendid man and highly efficient government official
has been dead for several years. Otherwise the situation would not likely be
as it is today at the Caves.
57. R.H. Rutledge, Regional Forester to The Forester, March 21, 1935, Vertical Files, Great Basin National
Park.
58. Memorandum for The Forester, E.A. Sherman, Associate Forester, March 28, 1935, Vertical Files, Great
Basin National Park.
59. George Doyle, Secretary, White Pine Chamber of Commerce & Mines to Cammerer, July 27, 1936, Central
Files, 1933-49, National Monuments, Lehman Cave, Part 2, RG 79, National Archives and Records Administration,
Washington, D.C.
352
Before this private property was purchased and the caves were placed under
the jurisdiction of the Park Service there were very good accommodations at the
caves. A man and his wife were in charge, they had erected many log cabins.
There were a dining room and a dance hall. Every consideration was shown
guests who came from far and near. Compare this situation with existing
conditions: Now there are no sleeping or eating accommodations, merely a
guide provided by the Park Service to take visitors through the caves. Tourists
arrive at the caves with the idea that a comfortable place will be found for
sleeping and that good meals are available. They go away disgusted, and very
naturally so.
If the Park Service does not intend to develop the caves it is about time that
the people of White Pine county petition our representatives in Congress to
remove the caves from the jurisdiction of the Park Service and place them
under the control of the Forest Service, which department of government has
shown a deep interest in recreational projects in this state, and particularly in
White Pine County.
If the Park Service will not act we will seek relief from another source. The
people will not longer tolerate this indifference and neglect.60
Some two weeks later, on September 14, 1936, Acting Regional Forester Olsen, who had
been Forest Supervisor of Nevada National Forest in 1933 when Lehman Caves had been
transferred to the Park Service, submitted the editorial to the Chief Forester in Washington.
In a transmittal letter Olsen stated that it "is believed that you should have this information
because it appears that the people of White Pine County are going to insist on some
action."61
Editor Vail Pittman issued another broadside in the Ely Daily Times on October 8, criticizing
the Park Service for its failure to make needed improvements at Lehman Caves and
comparing Park Service and Forest Service activities in the vicinity. Pittman took the Park
Service to task for its "shameful neglect" of the cave and alleged that the Park Service had
no interest in its development.62
This second editorial received a speedy response from the Park Service. In a letter to Vail
Pittman on October 1 7, Preston P. Patraw, the Superintendent of Zion and Bryce Canyon
National Parks who had administrative oversight over Lehman Caves, attempted to explain
the difficulties the Park Service had experienced in securing adequate funding for
development of the national monument. The letter, which was printed in the Ely Daily
Times, stated:
Since the Monument was transferred to the jurisdiction of the National Park
Service in 1933, some small improvements have been made. You will recall,
perhaps, that in the winter of 1933-34 we operated a 50-man C.W.A. camp at
the Monument, constructing a water storage reservoir, improving trails within the
caves, attempting to eradicate the innumerable marring inscriptions and marks
60. Editorial, Ely Daily Times, August 29, 1936, in Notebook, "HNF History - Land Uses," Historical Files,
USFS, Elko.
61. R.H. Rutledge, Regional Forester, By C.J. Olsen, Acting to Chief, Forest Service, September 14, 1936,
Notebook, "HNF History - Land Uses," Historical Files, USFS, Elko.
62. Editorial, Ely Daily Times, October 8, 1936.
353
that had been placed on the walls and formations in years past, building a
telephone line, and cleaning up the grounds. During the following winter we
had a small C.C.C. crew at the Monument as a side camp from the State Park
camp at Panaca, developing a public campground, parking area, and installing
a water supply line.
A request was submitted for a full C.C.C. camp for the following summer (1935),
but it was not granted, presumably for the reason that at the time the C.C.C.
program was being curtailed.
At the present time I have an allotment of $9,000 from the regular National Park
Service roads and trails appropriation for improvement work, and there is an
engineering crew at the Monument now, making surveys for the improvement
of the entrance road within the Monument, and of the entrance to the caves and
the trails within the caves. As soon as the plans are completed and approved
the construction work will be undertaken.
Another request for a C.C.C. camp to be established at the Monument next
spring is now pending. The establishment of a W.P.A camp this winter has
been under consideration, although so far the lack of available funds necessary
for contributions to the project has been a stumbling block.
The National Park Service has in mind the needed developments, including
electric illumination of the caves, road and trail improvements, campground
improvement, tourist overnight facilities, comfort station, living quarters for
administrative personnel, etc. That we have been unable yet to accomplish all
the desirable things is regretted by us as much as by you and other interested
citizens, and I wish to assure you that any apparent neglect is apparent only;
that we are alive to the needs of the Monument, are much interested in having
the desirable developments accomplished, and are only awaiting availability of
funds or other means for accomplishing them.63
That same day Superintendent Patraw wrote to NPS Director Cammerer concerning the
situation. He informed Cammerer that H. Donald Curry, Park Ranger in Charge at Lehman
Caves, had discussed the editorials with Pittman and "thinks he cleared up a number of
points on which Mr. Pittman had apparently been misinformed." Patraw quoted Curry
further:
I learned one thing - back of all Pittman's adverse and biased criticism is a
conscious effort by officials in the Forest Service to stir up trouble in an effort
to regain administration of the caves. I am certain of this, although no direct
statement to that effect was made. Talking to a Times reporter who is a friend
of mine I learned that this last tirade was precipitated by a long discussion with
a Forest Service official. I am surprised at this, as on the surface these men
have been anything but unfriendly.
Patraw questioned Curry's conclusions as his own "dealings with the Forest Service men
at Ely" had been "friendly, cooperative and apparently straightforward." However, he
promised to "attempt to discover whether there is an undercurrent of activity" at Ely. In any
event, Patraw recommended that "it be well, not only because developments are needed
63. Patraw to Vail Pittman, October 17, 1936, Central Files, 1933-49, National Monuments, Lehman Cave,
Part 2, RG 79, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
354
but also as a counter-irritant, to attempt a little more vigorously to obtain some means for
constructing developments" at Lehman Caves.64
Forest Service machinations in the controversy are borne out in its internal bureau
correspondence. On October 9, 1936, for instance, Regional Forester Rutledge informed
the Chief Forester:
On October 3, 4 and 5 Vail Pittman, brother to Senator Key Pittman, of Ely,
Nevada, discussed the Lehman Caves National Monument with C.J. Olsen of
this office. Vail Pittman is editor of the Ely Daily Times at Ely, Nevada and
furnishes a lot of the information about Nevada for Senator Key Pittman and
Senator Pat McCarran, and Congressman J.G. Scrugham, to request the
Secretary of the Interior and/or the President to transfer Lehman Caves National
Monument to the custody of the Forest Service, to be administered by the
Nevada National Forest, and at the same time ask them to support the Forest
Service in their request for appropriations for recreational development. The case
will undoubtedly come to your attention in the near future.65
The intent of the Forest Service to reacquire administrative jurisdiction of Lehman Caves
was described in vivid terms by Acting Regional Forester Olsen in a letter to the Forest
Supervisor of Nevada National Forest on November 4, 1936. The letter stated:
I have talked with Mr. Rutledge about the Lehman Caves situation. He is
agreeable to promising the Ely people that we will develop a lodge and cabins
and other needed facilities at the Lehman Caves National Monument, together
with other needed recreational improvements in the general locality of the caves,
provided the caves are transferred back to the Forest Service on a more or less
permanent basis.
It is ridiculous to think that the Government will continue to try to administer
Lehman Caves by a separate organization when it is so far away and is within
the exterior boundaries of the Nevada National Forest.
If the monument is transferred back to the Forest Service it should be done in
the near future so that we can plan developments for the entire area. Mount
Wheeler, the highest peak in the State of Nevada, and Lehman Creek and
Baker Creek, and the primitive area south toward Big Springs, holds out some
recreational possibilities which have not yet been realized.
When I left Ely after the deer hunt I understood Vail Pittman intended to go
after Key and Jim Scrugham in an attempt to have the transfer made. We are
all very much interested in the recreational development in and about the
National Monument and it will never be fully correlated and properly developed
until the monument is transferred to the Forest Service so that the development
can go forward with Lehman Caves as a nucleus for the entire development.66
64. Patraw to The Director, October 17, 1936, Central Files, 1933-49, National Monuments, Lehman Cave,
Part 2, RG 79, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
65. R.H. Rutledge, Regional Forester to Chief, Forest Service, October 9, 1936, L - Boundaries, Nevada,
1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No.
9539).
66. A.R.F. to Forest Supervisor, Nevada, November 4, 1936, L - Boundaries, Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National
Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539).
355
During the early 1940s Forest Service continued its efforts to have Lehman Caves National
Monument transferred back to their jurisdiction. In February 1941, for instance, Acting
Regional Forester Olsen issued a memorandum describing his attitude concerning the issue:
After the President had transferred the Lehman Caves to the National Park
Service and before the deed had been recorded in the name of the Department
of Agriculture, the local people were consulted, at the request of the Washington
Office, as to their desires. They were unanimous in their request that the land
be transferred to the Department of Agriculture. I personally explained the whole
thing to them and told them that this 40-acre tract was the controlling element
in the use of the cave. The County Commissioners were insistent, however,
upon having the transfer made to the Department of Agriculture.
While I have not been to the cave for some time, I understand the Park Service
has constructed some few buildings on the 40 acres, in addition to the impetus
that was given to the developments before I left.
There is no more reason for this small tract being under the National Park
Service than there would be for the Forest Service to take over a similar tract
in the middle of Yellowstone Park or any other park. It is not economical to the
government.
Park Service headquarters are located at Zions Park, and this small monument
is more or less of a liability to them. It is my opinion that the thing to do with
the whole monument is to transfer it back to the Forest Service to be handled
as a part of the Nevada National Forest. The 40 acres and the water rights
control the situation.
I do not know what Supervisor Briggs' attitude might be, but I think from the
angle of practical administration and economy in the expenditure of taxpayers'
money, the cave should be transferred to the Forest Service.67
Several months later on May 23, 1941, Olsen reiterated his arguments that the Forest
Service recommend transfer of Lehman Caves back to the Department of Agriculture. He
criticized the Park Service for the "slowness" and "apparent apathy" it had shown in
developing the cavern and visitor accommodations. However, his principal concern
centered on transfer of the national monument to the Forest Service. He noted:
It appears to be very poor economy for the government to have a small project
of this kind under a separate department of the government. The headquarters
of the National Park Service are at Boulder City, Nevada. The supervision of
the cave was transferred to Boulder City only recently.
There is a ranger station located at Baker, Nevada, only 7 or 8 miles from the
Lehman Caves National Monument. This is a yearlong station, and since the
ranger district is not a large one, the ranger could handle this job very well in
connection with his other work and as a part of the natural unit over which he
has supervision. Of course it would be necessary to have a custodian at the
cave during the summer period. The proper arrangement would be to have a
custodian whose wife would be able to serve meals for the people who visited
the cave, with some help during the rush season. This would make it a paying
67. Memorandum for Lands, C.J. Olsen, Acting Regional Forester, February 25, 1941, Vertical Files, Great
Basin National Park.
356
proposition for the custodian and would certainly increase the efficiency and
decrease the cost of handling the project. The Forest Supervisor's headquarters
are located at Ely only 75 miles away, which is also greatly in favor of the
transfer of the monument to the Forest Service.
It is my opinion that there is no alternative for us but to recommend the transfer
of the whole project to the Forest Service. As a matter of fact, practically all of
the improvements constructed by the Park Service are on the 47 acres of land
purchased by the White Pine County and transferred to the Department of
Agriculture, and of course this is the reason the Park Service is so anxious to
have this land transferred to them. At the present time this private land within
the monument, as I understand it, has National Forest status.
The local people, including the present County Commissioners and the County
Commissioners that were in the office at the time of the purchase, are very
much in favor of transferring the project to the Forest Service. Since the local
people have persistently and consistently demanded that the project be under
the Forest Service, it certainly would raise some serious questions with them
if we recommended the transfer of this land, in view of all the circumstances
surrounding the case and especially because of the fact that it is a logical and
integral part of the National Forest area and can without doubt be handled more
economically and efficiently by the local Forest Supervisor and Forest Ranger.68
With American entry in World War II in December 1941 the issue of transferring the cavern
back to the Forest Service was dropped. No documentation could be found relating to this
issue after the end of the war.
MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION OF LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL MONUMENT: 1965-
1986
The purpose of this section is to provide perspective on the history of Lehman Caves
National Monument from 1965 to 1986. In the former year Trexler completed his
administrative history of the monument, and in the latter the monument was absorbed into
Great Basin National Park. During these two decades significant changes and trends
occurred at the monument.
In December 1964 a new master plan was approved for Lehman Caves National
Monument. As expressed in the document the purpose of the monument was to provide
for preservation and for public use and enjoyment of an intricately decorated
marble cavern, and of a natural Great Basin pinyon-juniper forest environment.
It enables visitors to view the beauty and to understand and appreciate the
natural forces which create and dominate limestone caverns; to understand the
difficulties of early pioneers and contemporary speleologists in exploring and
explaining caverns; and to understand and appreciate the ecological community
which exists in this Great Basin area.69
68. Memorandum for Lands, C.J. Olsen, ARF, May 23, 1941, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park.
69. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Master Plan of Lehman Caves National Monument,
December 1964, Vol. 1, Chap. 2, Area Objectives, Purpose. A map showing the topography and development of
the headquarters area in September 1961 may be seen on the following page.
357
The national monument was experiencing a steady annual increase of visitors by 1964.
Yearly visitation had increased from about 10,000 in 1950 to some 30,000 by 1964. During
the period from May to September when approximately 85 percent of the annual visitation
occurred, 30 percent of the registered visitors were from California, 30 percent from Utah,
14 per cent from Nevada, and 26 percent from the remaining states and foreign countries.
Winter visitors were primarily from Utah (40%), Nevada (30%), and California (10%). The
average duration of visit per person at the monument was estimated to be 3-1/4 hours,
including a 1-1/2-hour cave tour.70
In 1964 the staff of the national monument consisted of a superintendent and four
permanent and nine temporary employees. These included a chief park naturalist who
supervised five temporary park guides and one temporary park ranger, one permanent
administrative assistant, one permanent Foreman II, Maintenance, and one permanent
maintenance man who supervised three temporary laborers.
Various operations were conducted on the lands of the national monument. The
combination snack bar and souvenir shop in the visitor center was operated between Easter
and Veterans Day under a three-year revocable concession permit. The Lehman Caves
Natural History Association had been incorporated in 1963 under the laws of the State of
Nevada and operated primarily as a publication sales organization. Special use permits
were granted to the Nevada State Department of Highways to maintain .43 miles of State
Highway 74 inside the monument; to the U.S. Forest Service to maintain .25 miles of Baker
Creek Road which crossed the southeast corner of the monument; and to the Bell
Telephone Company of Nevada to maintain a right-of-way necessary to furnish telephone
service to the visitor center and residence area.
Staff housing at the monument in 1964 could "achieve the present target of 12 employee
units if only males are hired, if unmarried seasonals are not rehired, and if one cabin is
converted to a bunkhouse." The housing units included: (1) four new three-bedroom
residences; (2) one old two-bedroom residence; (3) one large one-bedroom cabin (3-person
capacity); (4) one small one-room cabin (2-person capacity); and (5) one small trailer (2-
person capacity).71
During the spring of 1967 the National Park Service and the U.S. Forest Service signed a
cooperative agreement that provided for combined visitor services and maintenance facilities
for both bureaus at Lehman Caves National Monument. The development program
included enlargement of the monument's Visitor Center to include Forest Service offices and
exhibits and a ranger residence and maintenance facilities for Forest Service personnel who
would administer the Visitor Information Services for the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area.72
As a result of this agreement an addition to the south end of the Visitor Center was
constructed in 1969. Included in the addition were an office and exhibit area for the Forest
Service and a combination cafe and curio shop. In 1970 a Forest Service residence was
completed in the staff housing area at the monument, thus allowing the bureau to move the
former residence at the Baker Guard Station to Ely.73
70. Ibid., Vol. 1, Chap. 1, Basic Information, The Visitor.
71. Ibid, Chap. 3, Management Programs Narrative, Staff Activities.
72. Ely Daily Times, May 16, 1967.
73. Interpretive Prospectus for Lehman Caves National Monument, Nevada, Prepared by John L. Schippleck,
August 1973, p. 23, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park, and Personal Interview with Virginia Eldridge, Baker,
Nevada September 15, 1988.
359
During the late 1960s and early 1970s visitation to Lehman Caves continued to increase
at an average annual rate of about eight percent. In 1972, for instance, the peak period of
use was from Easter through September. The heaviest visitation months were June, July,
and August, the combined total for those months being approximately sixty percent of the
year's total.74
During the mid-1970s the National Park Service began developing a "Statement for
Management" for each unit of the National Park System. The statements, which were
revised and updated periodically, were designed to provide an up-to-date inventory of the
park's condition and an analysis of its problems. The statements provided a format to park
administrators for evaluating conditions and identifying major issues and information voids.
The first "Statement for Management" for Lehman Caves National Monument was approved
by Howard H. Chapman, Western Regional Director, on January 10, 1977. As indicated in
the document the purpose of the monument was
to preserve the caves for their unusual scientific interest and importance. Use
shall be promoted and regulated to conserve the scenery and the natural and
historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the
same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the
enjoyment of future generations.
The statement provided for land classification management zones (a map showing these
zones may be seen on the following page) within the national monument. Three
management zones (natural, historic, and development) with three subzones were
"classified" to "depict present management practices."
The majority of the land in the monument was zoned as natural. Within this zone were
three subzones. In the natural environment subzone natural resources and processes were
to "remain largely unaltered by human activity except for the approved development
essential for management use, and appreciation of the monument." These developments
included primary and secondary roads, the native trail behind the visitor center, water tank
and chlorinator, and sewer system. The subzone was to be managed "to maintain existing
natural conditions as a setting for the prime resource of the monument.
The environmental protection subzone included the land surface above the cave and the
Gypsum Annex portion of the cave. It was to be managed "to perpetuate the cave with
minimal human intrusion in accordance with the park's Natural Resources Management
Plan." The only developments in this subzone were the nature trail and the cement
enclosure over the Natural Cave Entrance. The Gypsum Annex was to remain closed
except for research purposes because of its fragile environment and difficult access. Later,
the Lost River Passage portion of the cave would be added to this subzone due to
significant archeological discoveries.
The outstanding natural feature subzone encompassed "the underground living cave
system" which was the "park's principal attraction." The subzone was managed "to provide
for visitor enjoyment without impairing its quality." The unique geologic features of the cave,
notably the "great variety of speleothems, were said to "to possess unusual intrinsic value."
The historic zone included the Rhodes Cabin and the Lehman Orchard and Lehman
Aqueduct which had been listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Placement of
74. Interpretive Prospectus for Lehman Caves National Monument, Nevada, Prepared by John L. Scheppleck,
August 1973, pp. 4-6, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park.
360
!<■
\
/
361
these sites on the National Register entitled them to protection under Executive Order
11593 (36 CFR, Part 800) and the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 as amended.
The archeological site below the Natural Cave Entrance was also included in the historic
zone. Physical development in this zone was "the minimum needed to preserve, protect,
and interpret those historical values."
The development zone included the residential area, visitor center, picnic area, and sewage
lagoon. This intensive use zone was managed to provide and maintain development that
served the needs of park management and visitors.
By 1977 several memorandums of understanding and/or special use permits served both
the National Park Service and U.S. Forest Service in the administration and management
of the national monument and the surrounding Humboldt National Forest. One provided for
the joint occupancy and use of the administrative site by both bureaus, including joint use
of the Visitor Center and location of a Forest Service-owned three bedroom home, house
trailer, and AV trailer within the monument. Another provided for joint construction,
development, and operation of wastewater disposal facilities. A third provided for fiscal
controls concerning utilities, laborer services, and specialized maintenance between the two
bureaus. A fourth provided for a public access road across the southeast corner of the
monument to the Baker Creek area of Humboldt National Forest. In addition, a
memorandum of understanding provided for cooperation in the resolution of fire problems
of mutual concern to the two bureaus.
For its part the Forest Service had issued a special use permit to the National Park Service
granting water rights to a spring. The permit also authorized construction of collection
boxes, a fence, and pipelines for provision of a domestic water supply to the monument.
The Park Service and Nevada State Department of Fish and Game had a memorandum
of understanding for joint and cooperative endeavors contributing toward wildlife protection
within the monument. A fence surrounded the monument to prevent intrusion by hunters
and cattle grazing.
The Park Service had granted two special use permits to utilities. One granted to the Bell
Telephone Company of Nevada provided for a telephone right-of-way of approximately 900
feet of buried cable. A second granted to Mount Wheeler Power, Inc., provided for a right-
of-way 25 feet wide and 554 feet long to furnish commercial electricity in underground lines
to a master meter on the monument grounds.
A five-year concession permit authorized a park concessioner to provide food service,
refreshments, and souvenirs to the public. The permit assigned to the concessioner the
kitchen, dining room, gift shop, sales and storage areas, entryway, and west porch eating
terrace of the Visitor Center. The concession was open from Easter weekend until
September 30 each year.
Park staffing permitted five cave tours daily from Labor Day to Memorial Day and sixteen
daily tours during the summer months. Tours were 1-1/2 hours long, and the carrying
capacity per tour was forty people.
The "Statement For Management" enumerated the management objectives of the park. The
objectives (a copy of which may be seen in Appendix BB) related to the following issues:
Natural resources on the surface
Natural resources in the caves
Cultural resources
Recreational use
362
Interpretation
Visitor and employee safety
Acquisition of information
Cooperation
Development75
At the time the "Statement for Management" was approved in January 1977 the staff at
Lehman Caves National Monument consisted of six permanent and eleven seasonal,
temporary, or subject-to-furlough employees. The organization was as follows:
Superintendent
Administrative Technician
Chief of I & RM
Park Technician
Seasonal Park Technicians (six)
Seasonal Park Aid
Maintenance Mechanic Foreman
Maintenance Worker
Laborer (Subject-to-Furlough, 1 1 months)
Temporary Laborers (three)
Since the Park Service exercised proprietary jurisdiction over the monument, the
superintendent, chief of interpretation and resource management, and park technician were
deputized by the Sheriff of White Pine County.
Interpretive activities were a major component of the monument's program during the
1970s. According to Superintendent David F. Moore, the principal emphasis of the
interpretive program in 1977 was
devoted to guiding visitors through the cave and explaining the various
formations along with the archeology, geology and history. During the summer,
evening programs are presented on Friday and Saturday nights each week,
alternating weeks with the U.S. Forest Service. During the winter, programs
were given at the local schools at least monthly. The new A.V. room has aided
the interpretive program in showing the movie "The Lehman Caves Story." The
first showing of the movie occurred June 10, 1976.76
The park interpretive program was enhanced by various activities during the late 1 970s and
early 1980s. In 1979 a small amphitheater was constructed in the picnic area to serve as
the site for park interpretive programs.77 In 1982 candlelight cave tours were offered to the
public for the first time.78
75. "Statement for Management, Lehman Caves National Monument," January 10, 1977, pp. 1-20, Files,
Technical Information Center, Denver Service Center, National Park Service.
76. Annual Report, Superintendent, Lehman Caves National Monument, January 8, 1977, Vertical Files, Great
Basin National Park.
77. Annual Report, Superintendent, Lehman Caves National Monument, January 9, 1980, p. 10, Vertical
Files, Great Basin National Park.
78. Annual Report, Superintendent, Lehman Caves National Monument, 1982, p. 6, Vertical Files, Great Basin
National Park.
363
The Park Service continued to upgrade its facilities at Lehman Caves National Monument
during the early 1980s. In 1981, for instance, two significant construction projects were
completed. A sewage lagoon/dump station was completed in July, more than doubling the
capacity of the sewage treatment system and providing a trailer dump station for visitors
and campers. In September a new water tank system was completed, including a
chlorination contact chamber and a 50,000-gallon storage tank and associated valve
boxes.79
Interpretive guide training became an increasing emphasis during the 1980s. In 1982, for
instance, Superintendent Albert J. Hendricks observed:
The main emphasis in the interpretive program continues to be the guiding of
visitors through the cave. Training of guides is of primary concern and they are
presented with the basic facts about the resource and interpretive guidelines.
Each tour is individually developed to incorporate the basics and the guide's
particular theme. The guides are expected to submit their themes and objectives
for review near the beginning of the season to enable them to develop their
techniques to the fullest during the year.80
The ongoing program of cave exploration continued during the late 1970s and early 1980s.
On July 1, 1979, a new cave on the monument grounds was discovered by Ed Wood,
Chief of Interpretation and Resource Management. Named "Wood's Hole Cave," it was
found to extend a minimum of 825 feet. Although few calcite speleothems adorned the
cave, "curious wax-work-like structures" could be seen throughout its crawlways.81
On November 10, 1981, the north portion of the Talus Room of Lehman Caves was closed
to public entry to prevent personal injury from what appeared to be a dangerous unstable
portion of the cave wall. After a two-cubic-foot rock fell from the ceiling of the south end
of the room in April 1983 the entire area was closed to public entry. That year an
agreement was reached between the National Park Service and the U.S. Geological Survey
for completion of a stability study of the Talus Room.82
The Lehman Caves "Statement for Management" was revised and updated in January
1984. The new statement included a visitor use analysis section, which noted that total
visitation had "remained fairly constant during the past five years" (33,000), but "had
decreased from the previous five years average" (39,000). The remote location of the
monument and road conditions affected by weather were viewed as the primary problems
limiting visitor use of the monument.
The revised statement also contained updated management objectives for the national
monument. While most of these were simply updated to reflect current monument practices
79. Annual Report, Superintendent, Lehman Caves National Monument, CY 1981, Superintendent's Annual
Report - 1981 - File, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park, and Humboldt National Forest, Ely Ranger District,
R 4, Environmental Analysis Report, Gravel Source and Waste Disposal Site for National Park Service Lagoon and
Dump Station, Lehman Caves National Monument, May 15, 1978, Basic Data, Great Basin National Park General
Management Planning Team Files, Denver Service Center.
80. Annual Report, Superintendent, Lehman Caves National Monument, CY 1982, Superintendent's Annual
Report - 1982 - File, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park.
81. Annual Report, Superintendent, Lehman Caves National Monument, January 9, 1980, p. 9, Vertical Files,
Great Basin National Park.
82. Annual Reports, Superintendents, Lehman Caves National Monument, 1981, p. 9, and 1983, p. 11, Vertical
Files, Great Basin National Park.
364
and policies, three new objectives were stated, reflecting new NPS and federal legislative
concerns and standards. These were management efficiency, visibility and air quality, and
environmental concerns.83
After several years of research and preparation the staff at Lehman Caves National
Monument, under the direction of Superintendent Hendricks, submitted the first draft of an
"Orchard Management Plan" in July 1986. The plan was written to provide management
guidance for actions relating to the historic Lehman Orchard. The plan addressed the
history of the orchard, general orchard operation, and specific management actions relating
to the orchard. The management actions section included twenty "action statements" that
would provide management and interpretive directives for preservation and restoration of
the orchard. These statements pertained to: (1) historic tree preservation and fruit
production; (2) pruning; (3) fertilization; (4) correcting drainage problem; (5) watering system;
(6) soil moisture monitoring; (7) disease and insect pest control; (8) reestablishing Lehman
Pond; (9) orchard fence; (10) reestablishing historic ground cover; (11) non-historic fruit tree
removal; (12) grafting and planting of historic tree stock; (13) irrigating with Lehman
Aqueduct; (14) reestablishing historic irrigating branch lines in orchard; (15) metal detector
search; (16) compilation of orchard history; (17) interpretive trail to orchard; (18) orchard
exhibit; (19) nature trail brochure; and (20) selling orchard produce.84
83. "Statement for Management, Lehman Caves National Monument," Revised January 1984, pp. 17-18, 27-
31.
84. Lehman Caves National Monument, Orchard Management Plan, July 1986, pp. 1-28, H30 - Lehman
Orchard Restoration, Central Files, Great Basin National Park.
365
CHAPTER TWELVE
HISTORY OF THE MOVEMENT TO ESTABLISH
GREAT BASIN NATIONAL PARK
INTRODUCTION
There has been much speculation concerning efforts in the 1920s to enlarge the boundaries
and change the designation of Lehman Caves from that of a national monument to a
national park. When that effort failed the State of Nevada attempted to develop the area
as a "state recreation ground" first in cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service and later
outside Forest Service jurisdiction. Those were the first endeavors to establish a national
park and develop a state recreation area in the area of present-day Great Basin National
Park.
EFFORTS TO ENLARGE THE LEHMAN CAVES-WHEELER PEAK AREA INTO A
NATIONAL PARK AND STATE RECREATIONAL GROUND DURING THE 1920s
During the early 1920s Nevada Governor James E. Scrugham initiated development of a
system of "state recreation grounds" in cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service. The
system had the tacit approval of Secretary of Agriculture Henry C. Wallace and Chief
Forester W.B. Greeley. One of the first such designations was the Lehman Creek area. In
April 1 923 the entire Snake Division of Nevada National Forest was designated as a state
recreation ground and Lehman State Game Refuge.1
During the spring of 1924 Cada C. Boak, who had been the prime mover in the campaign
to have Lehman Caves established as a national monument in 1922, began efforts to have
the boundaries of the national monument enlarged and its designation changed to that of
a national park. It should be noted that Boak had originally recommended that the national
monument be a three-square-mile area, but that the Forest Service, with Boak's
acquiescence, had reduced the boundaries of the proposed monument to one square mile
in the face of opposition from grazing interests before submitting its recommendation to the
Department of Agriculture. Thus, in 1924 Boak initiated efforts to have the boundaries of
the national monument enlarged to the approximate limits of his original recommendation
and have the newly-enlarged unit designated a national park. The proposed park would
include Wheeler Peak, the nearby alpine lakes, the drainage basins of Lehman and Baker
creeks, and the Baker Creek Caves which recently had been found to contain pictographs.
He contended that the varied scenic and cultural resources of the area warranted national
recognition and protection and should be incorporated into the national park system.2
A modest promotion campaign was launched by Boak and other interested persons in 1924.
Senator Key Pittman supported the campaign and planned to introduce a bill in Congress
if the idea were sanctioned by Governor Scrugham. The Ely Daily Times reported on April
26, 1924:
Establishment of a national park in Nevada is proposed by Senator Key Pittman
who is considering the introduction of a bill that would make such a park of the
1. Ely Record, April 13, 1923, and Scrugham to Greeley, August 14, 1924, L - Boundaries, Nevada, 1924,
RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539). Also
see Greeley to District Forester, August 29, 1 924, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park.
2. Ely Record, May 2, 1924.
367
Lehman Caves, now a national monument. Leo McClatchy has written to
western newspapers for which he is Washington correspondent.
Pittman says he will write first to Governor Scrugham to get the state
executive's views on the matter. If Scrugham thinks the idea is a good one,
congressional authorization will be sought.
The Lehman Caves are about sixty minutes southeast of Ely, almost on the
route of the Lincoln Highway. Additional development in the immediate vicinity
of this natural wonder, including highway construction, it is thought, would result
from creation of a park. National parks, it seems, always are a great attraction
to the tourist and hence, the park service devotes more attention to their
development.3
While Scrugham was reviewing the proposed legislation, Boak submitted recommendations
to Pittman that called for establishment of an enlarged national park in the Lehman Cave-
Wheeler Peak area. On May 2, 1 924, the Ely Record printed a lengthy article containing
portions of Boak's recommendations. The article stated:
Instead of creating a national park of Lehman caves monument, the suggestion
is made to Senator Pittman that he improve the plan and add 100 per cent of
the attractiveness of the project by including Lehman caves, Baker and Lehman
creeks and the summit of Mount Wheeler. This would be included in a
rectangular area, comprising a beautiful camping ground, a cluster of little lakes
at the head of Lehman Creek, the summit of Mount Wheeler and, most
important of all from a scenic point of view, the castellated gorge of Mount
Wheeler and Wheeler glacier.
This is the suggestion clearly set forth by C.C. Boak, father of the Lehman
monument, in a letter addressed to Senator Pittman in which he does on to
relate some of the glories of the panorama.
All in all, it is the most beautiful thing of the kind I know of anywhere in the
west. An auto road can be built up Baker creek to within possibly a couple of
thousand feet of the south rim, from where a trail could easily be built to the
rim. The climb on up to the summit would be hazardous but most interesting
one and not unduly long.
With the caves for a base and Baker and Lehman creeks paralleling one
another up the mountain, and the summit of Mount Wheeler, it should make a
national playground that would be hard to excel anywhere.4
Senator Pittman accepted Boak's recommendations, and Scrugham approved the revised
proposal. In June 1924 Pittman introduced a bill calling for an enlarged national park, but
strong opposition from grazing interests caused the bill to die. On June 13 the Ely Record
described the success of the Nevada Livestock Association in preventing the bill from
reaching the Senate floor:
The bill recently introduced by Senator Pittman to have the Lehman Caves
national monument created into a national park, will not be pressed at this
3. Ely Daily Times, April 26, 1924. An identical article was printed in the Ely Record on April 24, 1924.
4. Ely Record, May 2, 1924.
368
session of congress, and probably not at all, because of the fact that grazing
permits are not issued for national parks, which in this instance would work a
hardship on local stockmen in that section, requiring them to seek new grazing
grounds for their herds, which cannot be found in eastern Nevada. The attention
of Senator Pittman was called to this fact by Vernon Metcalf, secretary of the
Nevada Livestock Association, who suggested that the bill be withheld for further
consideration, to which Senator Pittman consented.5
With the defeat of this bill Governor Scrugham commenced efforts to have the "state
recreation ground" improved and developed in cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service.
Scrugham's renewed interest in the area stemmed from his visits to Lehman Caves in July
and August 1924. In early July Governor Scrugham visited the Lehman Caves-Wheeler
Peak area to become more acquainted with its scenic highlights. The Ely Record published
an account of this visit on July 4, 1924. While at the monument the governor
secured horses and worked his way back into the far reaches of Mount Wheeler
to the twin lakes, which with the mountain scenery and the timber, he considers
equal, if not superior, to the Yellowstone park. Mr. Renear, who is almost a
professional photographer, was brought along to secure a collection of
photographs not only of the interior of the caves but also of the lakes and
mountain scenery of the monument.
The article went on to state:
Governor Scrugham is quite enthusiastic over the wonderful possibilities of the
future of Lehman Caves monument and while there devised a number of plans
for its improvement, which include the blasting out of a new entrance to the
caves and also the building of trails from the caves to a connection with the
lakes in the interior of the mountain range. These improvements, he believes,
can be done for an expense not to exceed $5000, which in his judgment could
be arranged by the state and the federal government, and in co-operation with
the Forest Reserve, would be sufficient to make the mountain available for sight-
seeing and camping excursions. It is also a part of the general plan to erect
temporary buildings, which would include baths, where tourists could rest and
refresh themselves for a few days after their long journey from points in Utah
or Nevada on their visit to the caves. Mr. Renear was successful in securing
a number of excellent photographs which will be developed and enlarged and
later used for advertising purposes throughout Nevada and other states, which
would soon attract a large amount of travel to this wonderland of nature. With
proper advertising, and with accommodations for tourists at the caves, it is the
opinion of the governor that by another year the monument and the caves
would become a big drawing card with tourists, and a permanent asset to the
eastern section of the state.
The facts are that the beauty of the caves and the grandeur of the scenery
around Mount Wheeler, which is the highest peak in the state, and containing
the only glacier in Nevada, are not appreciated even by local people, hundreds
of whom have not even visited the caves. If these scenic features were located
in California, they would long ago have been advertised world-wide, because the
Ely Record, June 13, 1924.
369
people of California make a specialty of capitalizing all such attractions, and
they have found that such publicity brings splendid results in attracting tourists.6
Scrugham again visited the Lehman Caves area on August 8 and 9. Forest Ranger Quate
volunteered to conduct the governor and two associates, Drs. Frandsen and Schappelle to
several caves along Baker Creek. Quate described the governor's visit, reaction, and
subsequent Forest Service activity:
There is a small cavern in the Baker Creek Narrows in which ancient picture
writings are found which is well known to many people in that section. However,
near this wellknown cave there is another smaller cave which is nearly filled with
earth and boulders. In this latter cave I discovered after some labor at
excavating a number of picture writings, which were quite different from those
found in the larger cave. Upon being shown these, Dr. Schappelle declared that
they were of great scientific interest because of the proof of antiquity which was
present. Immediately after this Dr. Schappelle made a thorough examination of
the place and found other writings which I had not previously observed.
Governor Scrugham was greatly interested in the find and authorized the
expenditure of $200.00 to be used for excavations and also to place a barrier
across the entrance to the cave, this expenditure to be made under my
supervision. The next day I set two men at work. They are going ahead as
directed by Dr. Schappelle and will finish about August 23.
On August 9, 1924, Quate directed Schappelle and Frandsen to several other caves along
Baker Creek. According to Quate he took the men
to a cave which has been known for a long time as an old Indian burial ground
and guided them through the place after providing equipment for the entrance
which is by a direct descent of 55 feet. In this cave the skeletons of five human
bodies were found. Many more are probably hidden in the mound of debris
below the opening.
I described the cave in Baker Creek, in which flows a small stream of water,
to the professor but advised them that I had told only a very few of the place
because of the great danger in entering it on account of great masses of broken
and loose rocks which are always wet and slippery. The entrance to this cave
is by way of a cliff about 190 feet in height.
Dr. Frandsen, however, insisted on seeing the underground stream, which is
indeed a very curious sight, and I accordingly conducted him through this cave.7
Within several days of his visit to Lehman Caves Governor Scrugham wrote to Chief
Forester W.B. Greeley. On August 14 he informed Greeley of his plans for the Lehman
Caves-Baker Caves area and solicited the Chief Forester's cooperation in the venture. He
stated:
6. Ely Record, July 4, 1924.
7. Quate to Beam August 11, 1924, L - Boundaries, Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records
Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539). Quate believed himself "to be the discoverer
of the picture writings which were buried beneath the wash of soil and boulders," and he was positive that no one
"had ever found the underground stream before I explored it sometime late in 1923."
370
About one mile from the present National Monument are located a second set
of caves containing writings and relics left by a prehistoric race which I would
like to develop as a tourist attraction.
We have allotted the sum of $200 to the local Ranger, Mr. Graham Quate, with
the request that he use the money to secure labor for further excavating the
caves. I have also taken the liberty of requesting the Ranger to erect a barrier
across the entrance until such time as we can properly protect the ground from
vandalism. I have further arranged to authorize the expenditure of $2500 at the
Lehman Caves for a rest room, bath house and swimming pool, which are
greatly needed improvements for the convenience of tourists.
Above the cave area are a number of exquisitely beautiful mountain lakes which
we have arranged to fully stock with trout for the attraction of fishermen.
Nevada possesses but few recreation grounds, and I am hopeful that we can
secure your cooperation in the creation of a system of State Parks in this and
other localities.8
Governor Scrugham visited the Lehman Caves-Baker Caves area again on August 20-21,
1924, this time in company with State Geologist J.C. Jones, Civil Engineer C. McQuiddy,
and Alan LeBaron, an archeologist for the Hearst-owned San Francisco Examiner.
According to Forest Supervisor Charles A. Beam, the two men hired by Scrugham to
excavate the Baker Creek Caves had found several "relics of real value." These items
included a "Mask" made "of some sort of skin," a stone "Mortar" some 18 x 14x4 inches
which had been hollowed out to a depth of about 1-1/2 inches, a "mallet," several pieces
of broken pottery, and a number of teeth that appeared to be human. Great quantities of
"badly decomposed bones of animals" and large amounts of ashes and charcoal were also
found. Scrugham took all of these artifacts to the Nevada State Museum in Carson City.
At the mouth of the cave in which the relics had been found there were "ancient writings"
which LeBaron believed to be 2,500 years old. The archeologist photographed the writings,
and "his story together with cuts of the ancient writings" was to appear in all of the Sunday
editions of the Hearst newspapers. Some of the writings were "badly weathered," but most
were in "an excellent state of preservation."
Beam reported to his superiors that Scrugham was "deeply inthused [sic] over the prospects
at these caves" and believed that the area would "become one of the most noted places
in the State." Scrugham advised Beam "that he had appropriated $1 ,200.00 with which to
erect a bath house at the Lehman Caves and that this structure would be located upon
lands deeded to the State" by Rhodes which were "immediately adjacent to the caves." By
September 15 the governor expected "to bring some Hotel men to the caves." The governor
anticipated that a modern hotel would be constructed. The Nevada Fish and Game
Department would stock "the streams and lakes with an abundance of fish" and the game
preserve "with many kinds of game animals and birds." The governor was particularly
interested in stocking Lehman and Snake creeks and Teresa, Stella, and Brown lakes.
Scrugham wanted the Forest Service to construct "a good Auto road from the Lehman
Caves to the two small lakes" which were situated "at the foot of Mount Wheeler and at
a distance of approximately three miles from the caves." This effort, according to Scrugham,
"would be about equal" to the state efforts in the area. The governor expected to have the
state "construct a good road to the caves which will connect with the Ely-Baker road at a
8. Scrugham to Greeley, August 14, 1924, L - Boundaries, Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and
Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539).
371
point approximately six miles north of the caves." This road would permit tourists to drive
to the caves from Ely over the state road "and thence on to Baker over the Forest Service
road or vice-versa."9
On September 18, 1924, Forest Supervisor Beam recommended to the district forester that
Lehman Caves National Monument be enlarged "since there are several things of general
interest situated therein." The "object of greatest interest within this proposed addition" was
"some caves situated at the Narrows of Baker Creek Canyon and which were evidently
used by some prehistoric race." The caves, according to Beam, would "have but very little,
if any, attraction to the average tourist since all they can see there is the ancient writings
which to the average person means but very little, since they are not understandable."
The proposed addition would also include Wheeler Peak and the nearby alpine lakes. Beam
noted:
The next place of interest in this addition to the National Monument is
Mt. Wheeler which is reputed to be the highest mountain in the State of Nevada
and upon which a small glacier is located in a deep ravine on the north side.
A very limited number of tourists might wish to climb to the top of this peak,
from which point a very great radius of country may be seen. The next point
of interest is Tereasa Lake situated immediately at the foot of Mt. Wheeler at
the extreme head of Lehman Creek Canyon which now covers an area of
approximately one and one-half acres and which, at its greatest height,
immediately after the spring runoff of snow would cover approximately three
acres. There are two other small lakes about threefourths of a mile southeast
of Tereasa Lake, neither of which could hardly be termed as lakes since they
are very much smaller than Lake Tereasa. There are no fish in either of these
lakes or more correctly termed ponds and it is my opinion that fish could not
be kept in these lakes since they have a rock bottom and there is absolutely
no vegetation in them from which fish could secure their food. Tereasa Lake is
very shallow and it is the opinion of all those acquainted with the lake that it
freezes to the bottom each winter. There is a good automobile road from Baker,
Nevada to Lehman Caves and also to the Caves in Baker Creek Canyon but
in order to reach Lake Tereasa it would be necessary to construct approximately
ten miles of auto road and this road would cost approximately $5000 per mile.
Beam observed that Lehman Caves National Monument was gaining in popularity "very
rapidly." Some 200 persons had visited the cave in 1 920, but more than 1 ,500 had already
toured the cavern that season. More advertising and better roads between Ely and Milford
would increase visitation.
Although Scrugham believed that a road could be constructed to Teresa Lake at nominal
cost, Beam had come to different conclusions. He had
measured the distance from the lake to Lehmans Cave and found the most
direct distance to be 6.7 miles. The road would necessarily have to follow
Lehman Creek Canyon and this has a grade ranging from 10 to perhaps 20 per
cent which will necessarily increase the length of the road to a maximum of 10
miles or perhaps a little more. With the exception of the three very small lakes
and Mt. Wheeler above discussed, there is nothing in Lehman Creek Canyon
which would interest tourists and it is my opinion that but very few tourists
9. Charles A. Beam, Forest Supervisor to District Forester, Ogden, Utah, August 22 and September 18, 1924,
L - Boundaries, Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No.
74A-240/Location No. 9539).
372
would care to make the trip to the lakes since the road would necessarily have
to be very crooked through numerous switchbacks in order to make a grade
sufficiently level for automobiles to travel over and a road of this kind is not at
all attractive to the average motorist, since they are very dangerous to travel
over due to the many switchbacks which would necessarily have to be
maintained on this road.
Beam felt that Scrugham was "somewhat over enthusiastic in regards to the Lehman Creek
Road and Lehman Caves and vicinity" and was certain that this area could "never compare
favorably with Yellowstone or Yosemite Parks" as Scrugham had asserted in a letter to the
White Pine County commissioners. He appreciated fully, however, the "necessity for
recreational grounds in Nevada" and sincerely believed "that every consistent effort should
be made to improve the Lehmans Cave National Monument." Grazing should be restricted
on the proposed addition "to accommodate the travelling public by maintaining suitable
camp grounds along the course of Lehman Creek." After the travel season each year sheep
and cattle could be permitted "to graze over this area which would be beneficial to the
range through tramping the matured seed into the ground and reducing fire hazard."
Beam commented that the existing national monument was "under the jurisdiction of the
Forest Service and if the addition is made to this Monument I feel that the supervision of
the entire area should still remain with the Forest Service." He commented further on the
supervision, roads and trails, and visitor services in the Lehman Cave vicinity:
The Forest Service has heretofore constructed a good automobile road from
Baker, Nevada to Lehmans Cave and also a road up Baker Creek Canyon for
a distance of three miles above the newly discovered caves which makes that
portion of the Lehmans Cave district reasonably accessible for automobiles.
There is now an existing old road from Lehmans Cave up Lehman Creek for
a distance of approximately two miles over which automobiles can pass, though
it is not in any sense a desirable automobile road. This road covers practically
all of the desirable camp grounds on Lehman Creek and I do not believe it
advisable at this time to undertake the construction of an automobile road from
the Caves to Tereasa Lake. There is at present a fairly good horse trail from
the Caves to Tereasa Lake and the care-taker, Mr. Rhodes, has a string of
saddle horses which he uses in taking a saddle horse trip to the lakes with
tourists whenever they desire to go. Mr. Rhodes states that very few people
express a desire to go to the lakes and that so far this season he has had only
three small parties who have taken the trip on horseback. . . . Under the
present arrangements we have a very good control over this National Monument
and every person with whom I have discussed the subject expresses themselves
as being entirely satisfied with our present plan of management and I believe
for the best interests of the area and the public generally, there should be no
change from our present method of supervision.
Beam stated that a barrier had not been constructed across the mouth of the Baker Creek
Caves since there was "nothing of interest which could be carried away by visitors at these
caves." Since the caves extended "along the foot of a ledge some two or three hundred
feet," an effective barrier "would have to be some sort of a stockade structure."10
When the district forester objected to such a large addition to Lehman Caves National
Monument, Beam defended his recommendations. In a letter to the district forester on
10. Charles A. Beam, Forest Supervisor to District forester, Ogden, Utah, September 18, 1924, L - Boundaries,
Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location
No. 9539).
373
December 6, 1924, Beam indicated his proposal had been a maneuver to counter
Scrugham's recent efforts to have the area designated a state park outside Forest Service
jurisdiction. He stated:
My only object in recommending so large an addition to the present Lehmans
Cave National Monument was to have it in conformity as nearly as possible with
the desires of Governor Schrugham. It was my understanding that the Governor
was intending to make an application for the setting aside of this particular area
as a State Park, which would, of course, place the park under the control of the
State, which, in my judgement, would materially interfere with the proper
administration of the National Forest. I felt, therefore, that if we could increase
the area of the National Monument to conform to the Governor's proposed plan
of a State Park, there would be no room for criticism of the Forest Service by
the State if the application for a State Park was disapproved, since the National
Monument would cover all of the grounds desired by the State and would permit
tourists to enjoy this area as fully as though it was under State or National Park
Government.
From a strictly business point of view I feel that if sections 15 and 22 of
Township 13 North, Range 69 East were added to the present National
Monument this would serve all purposes other than those outlined above and
it is my honest opinion that if State control of any portion of this area can be
avoided without a greater extension to the National Monument that we should
not ask for addition more than the two above described sections.
Beam reiterated his negative feelings concerning the value of the Baker Creek Caves. He
noted:
The Baker Creek Alcoves, while containing a number of Indian picture writings,
are not in any way attractive and it is my opinion that they will have no value
to the travelling public since such alcoves or depressions in ledges can be
found in many places throughout the mountains. I had observed these Indian
writings at numerous times and I had failed to see anything attractive about
them. In discussing this question with many other persons they have all
informed me that so far as they were concerned the alcoves and Indian writings
were of no particular interest to them. I, therefore, feel that the great amount
of publicity these alcoves have received is uncalled for and that the
representations of them have been greatly overdrawn.
In conclusion Beam felt "that by all means the control of this area should be retained by
the Government and that it should not be released under any circumstances to the State."
If "application for a State Park" could "consistently be disapproved" additions to the existing
national monument "should not include more than sections 15 and 22."11
Ten days later on December 16, 1924, District Forester R.H. Rutledge informed the Chief
Forester of the need to enlarge Lehman Caves National Monument. In "view of the interest
shown in the Baker Creek Alcoves by Governor Scrugham and the amount of publicity
given same," the enlargement was considered "advisable." Thus, he proposed that the
national monument be enlarged to provide "the necessary protection to the alleged
prehistoric hieroglyphics" and "cover all the under-ground channels of the cave." He
commented that "we have no great amount of enthusiasm over the alcoves but are of the
opinion that they should be protected pending further examination at least."
11. Ibid., December 6, 1924, L - Boundaries, Nevada, 1911, RG 95, National Archives and Records
Administration, San Bruno (Accession No. 74A-240/Location No. 9539).
374
Rutledge went on to explain that the "surrounding area" was "of mediocre importance for
recreational purposes" and it was "doubtful if a special act to include the small lakes and
Mt. Wheeler will be warranted." However, this issue would "be worked out with the
Governor in the near future."12
After reviewing this recommendation the Chief Forester's office decided to defer
enlargement of Lehman Caves National Monument until a detailed scientific investigation
had been conducted by the Smithsonian Institution or the Carnegie Institution. On January
10, 1925, Assistant Forester LF. Kneipp explained the rationale behind this decision:
From the Supervisor's report it is not clear that the Monument contains any
objects of special historic or scientific interest other than the cave. The Indian
writings may be of interest and of such importance that they should be protected
by a monument withdrawal but this is not yet known and probably will not be
until they are examined by such authority as Governor Scrugham has in mind
- that is, a representative of the Smithsonian Institution or Carnegie Hall.
In view of the whole present situation and understanding respecting the Lehman
Cave Monument, it is our feeling here that it would be well to postpone any
movement looking to the enlargement of the Monument until more definite
information can be secured as to the value of the Indian writings and any other
features which may be of importance. It is suggested that we await the
examination which the Governor says he hopes to have made. When that is
completed, no doubt we can secure such further information from the persons
who conduct the examination to enable us to make a more comprehensive
report to the Smithsonian Institution and decide whether the Monument should
be enlarged.13
The efforts of Governor Scrugham to establish a state park in the Lehman Caves-Baker
Caves area and of the Forest Service to enlarge the boundaries of Lehman Caves National
Monument ended in 1925. No further documentation concerning the issue could be found.
However, when the state legislature established a Nevada State Park System in March
1935 Lehman Caves National Monument was designated as one of six units in the
embryonic system. Although it was acknowledged that Lehman Caves "strictly speaking, is
a national monument," it was included in the state park system. The six units, including
Cathedral Gorge, Kershaw Canyon-Ryan State Park, Beaver Dam Park, Boulder Dam-
Valley of Fire State Park, and Fort Churchill, were publicized as composing "the nucleus
of what should, in the near future, become a comprehensive unification of natural
phenomena found in Nevada, first conditioned and then made accessible by highways for
citizens of the Sagebrush State and visitors to view and fully enjoy."14
National Park Service records also indicate that bureau officials continued to discuss the
enlargement of Lehman Caves National Monument as late as the mid-1 930s. On August
21, 1936, for instance, H. Donald Curry, Park Ranger in Charge, wrote to Western Regional
Geologist J. Volney Lewis:
12. R.H. Rutledge, District Forester to The Forester, December 16, 1924, Historical Files, USFS, Elko.
13. L.F. Kneipp, Assistant Forester to District Forester, Ogden, Utah, January 10, 1925, Historical Files, USFS,
Elko.
14. "Nevada Has Diverse Park System," Nevada Highways and Parks, I (March 1936), 1-4.
375
To my mind the country is ideal for recreational purposes, and would make a
fine addition to the monument. At present there is a good deal of poaching of
deer, and the campers are not too tidy.
With the coming of good roads to the vicinity of the monument, such a
recreational area would be greatly used. It is in the Nevada National Forest at
present, of course. Glaciation would be the most interesting geological
phenomena in the back country.
I think that the headwaters of Baker and Lehman Creeks, over to the divide at
the western edge of the range, (and perhaps some of the country to the south
- clear to Snake Creek) should be included within the boundaries of the
monument. This would include, approximately, the eastern half of T. 13 N., R.
68 E; and the western half of T. 13 N., Range 69 E.; perhaps forty square
miles, all told.15
No documentation could be found concerning any Park Service pursuit of the idea for
enlarging the national monument.
MOVEMENT RESULTING IN ESTABLISHMENT OF GREAT BASIN NATIONAL PARK:
1955-1986
In 1955 several events occurred that would ultimately lead toward the formation of a
movement to create a Great Basin National Park in White Pine County in eastern Nevada.
This movement would achieve success some thirty-one years later on October 27, 1986,
when President Ronald Reagan signed Public Law 99-565 establishing Great Basin National
Park as the nation's forty-ninth national park. This chapter will trace the events and political
developments that played a role in that thirty-one-year campaign.
In June 1955 the establishment of a national park, incorporating Lehman Caves and the
Wheeler Peak vicinity, was suggested at a meeting of the White Pine Chamber of
Commerce and Mines in Ely. The chamber apparently saw the proposed park as an issue
that would attract publicity and tourism to White Pine County and thus add a new source
of income to an economy that was largely dependent upon the fluctuations of the mining
industry.16
The movement to establish Great Basin National Park was directly inspired by what has
come to be referred to as the rediscovery of the "Wheeler Glacieret" or "Wheeler ice field"
in August-September 1955. Weldon F. Heald, a conservationist and free-lance writer from
Tucson, Arizona, and Albert Marshall, an associate from Three Rivers, California, spent five
days hiking in the Snake Range. In an article published in the Sierra Club Bulletin in
December 1956 Heald wrote of his excursion the previous year:
15. Curry to Lewis, August 21, 1936, Lehman Caves File, Box 1, Central Files, 1936-40, Region IV, Record
Group 79, Records of the National Park Service, National Archives and Records Administration, San Francisco
Branch, San Bruno, California.
16. Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National Park," Part II, pp. 735-36. Two sources that should be examined
along with this section are: Robert Starr Waite, "The Proposed Great Basin National Park: A Geographical
Interpretation of the Southern Snake Range, Nevada" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los
Angeles, 1974), Part II, pp. 732-76, and Steve Oulman, "Copper, Cows, and Crown Jewels: A Case Study
Analyzing the Context of Debate Surrounding Establishment of Great Basin National Park In Terms of Regional
History, National Park Politics, and Community Attitudes Towards Economic Development: (a terminal project
presented to the Department of Planning, Public Policy and Management, University of Oregon, August, 1987).
376
Last year, after a little detective work, Albert Marshall and I discovered what we
believe to be a hitherto unknown and unsuspected glacier in Nevada's Snake
Range. While stalking the ice, which lies hidden deep in the great north cirque
of Wheeler Peak, we spent five days knapsacking in as delightful an alpine sky
country as we had ever seen. In fact, we were so impressed that I later made
the suggestion that the finest part of the Snake Range be included in a national
park or monument.
Heald elaborated further on the rediscovery of the glacieret or ice field:
My curiosity was first aroused some years ago by an article in an old U.S.
Geological Survey annual report. It described a body of ice on Wheeler Peak
seen in 1883 by Mr. William Eimbeck of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. But
he gave few details and no intimation that it might be an active glacier, and he
obviously didn't enter the cirque. My interest was further stimulated by an
examination of air photographs, and by a distant view of Wheeler Peak's north
face while crossing Sacramento Pass in 1947. Time didn't permit investigation
then, but I felt certain that some of the ice remained. I resolved to have a
closer look at the earliest opportunity.
Eight years passed before I was able to satisfy my curiosity. But finally last
September, with Albert Marshall, companion on many previous mountain jaunts,
I ascended Lehman Creek canyon and camped in the glacial basin at its head.
We spent several days exploring the high country, climbed Wheeler Peak and
descended the north face far enough to see ice, and eventually made our way
into the great north cirque. This proved to be as arduous an expedition as
Albert and I had ever undertaken together. But when we passed the portal-
like cliffs and saw into the cirque, we both shouted at once. For there before
us, cradled in the gigantic rock basin, was not just ice, but an active glacier. All
the signs of moving ice were readily apparent - neve, bergschrunds, crevasses,
and fresh moraines. True, this was no giant river of ice. It was triangular in
shape, and its greatest dimension probably didn't exceed 2,000 feet. But the
wonder was that it should be there at all in the midst of the Nevada desert.17
Heald immediately began a promotional campaign to support his recommendation for
establishment of a national park in the Snake Range.18 On September 23 he wrote to the
Forest Service concerning his "rediscovery" of the glacieret and interest in preserving the
area. Forest Supervisor L.A. Dremolski responded on October 13:
As you may have observed the area around the glacier is little changed since
being established as part of the Nevada National Forest in 1906. It would, no
doubt, remain in this state, however, studies are now being made as to the
desirability of having it set aside as a wild or scenic area. We appreciate your
interest in attempting to keep a few areas in their natural state.
Incidently, three of us made a trip to the glacier on October 4 and found it to
be exactly as per your report. Also, even for Forest Service men it proved to
17. Weldon F. Heald, The Proposed Great Basin Range National Park," Sierra Club Bulletin, XLI (December
1956), 46, 51-52.
18. Heald commenced efforts to have the glacieret officially designated the Matthes Glacier in honor of Francois
Emile Matthes (1874-1948), one of America's distinguished glacial geologists. The Board on Geographic Names did
not adopt the name, however, and thus the glacieret or ice field remains unnamed. Ibid., 52, and Waite, "Proposed
Great Basin National Park," Part II, pp. 737-38.
377
be an "arduous scramble." Your discovery should add considerable to the
outside interest in Eastern Nevada.19
At the same time Heald contacted the White Pine Chamber of Commerce and Mines
concerning his "rediscovery" of the glacieret and interest in having the area designated a
national park. At a conference it was determined that a permanent ice mass in the Great
Basin, as well as the scenic quality of Lehman Caves, the adjacent lake and forest country,
and the panoramic views afforded by Wheeler Peak, warranted national recognition. In
response Heald proceeded to write numerous articles for newspapers and conservation
periodicals describing the attractions of the area, commencing with a two-part article in the
Ely Daily Times on September 28 and October 1, 1955, respectively. In the second part
of this article, he argued for protection of an extensive part of the Snake Range under the
administration of the Park Service:
Wheeler Peak is the culminating summit of the Snake Range, which stretches
for 80 miles north and south in central Nevada, some 10-15 miles west of the
Utah line. Although surrounded by deserts and paralleled east and west by wide
treeless valleys, the range rises 6,000-8,000 feet into an enchanting mountain
oasis. Here are deep canyons, cascading trout streams, snow-streaked ridges,
forests of pine, fir, aspen and spruce, jewel-like alpine lakes, and green
meadows spread with wildflowers. The range is included in a detached section
of Nevada National Forest and at Wheeler's east base is Lehman Caves
National Monument.
However, if a satisfactory transfer can be made between the Forest Service and
Park Service, I believe Lehman National Monument should be enlarged to
include the Lehman Creek and Baker Creek drainages, and perhaps upper
Snake Creek - an area of from 35 to 50 square miles. Most of this highly
scenic country is too rough for roads, resort developments, or extensive grazing,
and should be preserved in its wilderness condition for all time as a delightful
haven for camp and trail life. As population grows and fast-paced modern
civilization encroaches upon our last remnants of original wilderness, we will
increasingly need such unspoiled, outdoor recreational areas as this high,
inspiring country round about Wheeler Peak.20
The recommendations by Heald were received favorably by conservation organizations,
such as the Sierra Club, National Parks Association, Wilderness Society, and Desert
Protective Council. As a result, an active promotional campaign for a Great Basin Range
National Park was launched, spearheaded by the White Pine Chamber of Commerce and
Mines.21 In January 1956 the organization established a special park development
committee to publicize the project. On January 23, 1956, the Ely Daily Times, whose editor
Darwin Lambert was a former member of the Nevada state legislature and employee of the
NPS and would become a leading proponent of the proposed park, published an article
recommending establishment of a 28,000-acre national park.22 Included within the proposed
boundaries were Lehman Caves; Wheeler Peak; Stella, Teresa, and Brown lakes in upper
19. Dremolski to Heald, October 13, 1955, Notebook "HNF History - Land Uses," Historical Files, USFS, Elko.
20. Ely Daily Times, September 28, October 1, 1955.
21. Heald, "Proposed Great Basin Range National Park," 46.
22. The papers of Lambert and other proponents of the park may be found in the Nevada Outdoor Recreation
Association Collection at the Nevada Historical Society, Reno.
378
Lehman Creek Canyon; Baker Lake in upper Baker Creek Canyon; and Johnson Lake in
upper Snake Creek Canyon.23
The special committee's publicity effort soon attracted the attention of Nevada's
congressional delegation - Senators Alan Bible24 and George W. Malone and
Representative Clifford Young. At the request of these congressmen the National Park
Service agreed to conduct a field investigation to evaluate the proposed park lands for
possible inclusion in the National Park System. Thus, on August 13-15, 1956,
representatives from the NPS Region Three office in Santa Fe led a field reconnaissance
survey of the area. The official party included six U.S. Forest Service employees and seven
NPS personnel. In addition, representatives of the Sierra Club, Nevada Fish and Game
Commission, White Pine Chamber of Commerce and Mines, Nevada Game Protective
Association, and other interested persons accompanied the group for a portion of the time.
After the three-day investigation was completed John E. Kell, Chief of Lands, Region Three,
coordinated the official report. The document, submitted on December 12, 1956, was
preliminary in nature and made no specific recommendations. The general conclusions of
the NPS representatives, however, were summarized by Kell:
The Wheeler Peak Area is the best example of a "Sky-Island" in the Great
Basin Area. The glacier alone is not sufficient reason to establish the area as
part of the National Park System. Persons supporting the establishment of the
area to "Protect" it will probably be satisfied with nothing less than a National
Park. The area is important enough to warrant further study, but the Service
should not compromise and accept anything less than a workable unit.
If establishment commitments are made, it should be with the full understanding
that title to all mining claims, patented and unpatented, will be acquired inside
the boundaries. Grazing rights should be acquired or otherwise extinguished. All
private land inside the proposed boundaries should be acquired and a fee
simple title donated to the United States before any legislation establishing the
area is enacted.
If accepted as a unit in the National Park System, the proposed park, according to the NPS
investigators, should include the Wheeler Peak area and the Lehman, Baker and Snake
Creek drainages. The south boundary should also include both sides of Big Wash.25
Despite the noncommittal nature of the report Heald and other park proponents continued
their efforts to have a national park established in the Snake Range. Writing in the July-
September 1957 issue of National Parks Magazine Heald stated:
With its ease of access and the expanded visitors' facilities planned by the Park
Service, Lehman Caves would form the nucleus and headquarters for the new
23. Ely Daily Times, January 23, 1956.
24. The Alan Bible Papers, which contain considerable data on his legislative efforts to establish the park,
are located in the Special Collections Department, University Library, University of Nevada, Reno.
25. "Field Investigation Report, Wheeler Peak Area, Nevada," August 1956, pp. 1-18, Files, Technical
Information Center, Denver Service Center. The report contained separate sections with recommendations on
biology by Lowell Sumner, Biologist, Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Park, geology by Bennett T. Gale, and
general comments by James H. Gadsby, NPS Naturalist-Geologist in the Washington Office. For the views of the
Nevada Fish and Game Commission on the proposed park as a result of its participation in the field investigation
see Nevada Fish and Game Commission, Reno, Nevada, Survey Report on Proposed Wheeler Peak-Lehman Caves
National Park Area [1956], in 86th Congress, Box 21, Folder 347, Cannon Papers, University of Nevada, Las Vegas.
379
park or enlarged monument. The mountainous area is too rough and restricted
for extensive road or resort development and would best be preserved in its
natural state as a wilderness for camping, hiking and horseback riding.
Precedents for this kind of park, in which large parts are left untouched, with
the exception of trails and shelters, are Grand Teton, Kings Canyon, Olympic
and others.
One of the basic policies of the Park Service is that each unit in the system
should exemplify a definite kind of American scenery and, where possible, every
park should be the finest of its kind. We proponents of "Great Basin National
Park" believe that Nevada's Snake Range fulfills these requirements and would
make a unique and significant addition to our national parks.
Heald went on to quote C. Edward Graves, western representative of the National Parks
Association:
The fact that this is the only known glacier in the Great Basin lying between the
Rockies and California's Sierra Nevada . . . and that in five horizontal miles the
ascent of Wheeler Peak goes through five life zones, from the Upper Sonoran
to the Arctic-Alpine, makes the area unique from a scientific standpoint. The
spectacular scenery of the great peak, with its tremendous cirque, comparable
to the famous east face of Longs Peak in Colorado, and the unusually beautiful
sub-alpine meadows and lakes and forests, combine to give the area the
necessary qualifications as a unit of the national park system.26
As the national park proposal received increasing attention, park proponents decided to
form a separate organization to promote the park cause. Thus, on August 25, 1957, more
than thirty persons met at Lehman Caves National Monument to establish the Great Basin
Range National Park Association27 with Darwin Lambert as president and Weldon Heald as
vice president. The purpose of the organization, which had its headquarters in the White
Pine Chamber of Commerce and Mines building in Ely, was explained in its constitution:
The organization is to work toward establishing a Great Basin Range National
park in eastern Nevada, including Wheeler Peak, Matthes Glacier, Lehman
Caves and an appropriate and adequate portion of the surrounding area, to be
protected and preserved for the enjoyment, education and inspiration of the
people. It is to encourage appreciation of the area as the superb example of the
more than 100 Great Basin ranges and the unique basin-and-range topography,
to stimulate research and to gather and disseminate facts about the earth
history, geological structure, flora and fauna of this Great Basin range, and to
watch over and influence development and use of the area so as to keep its
great natural values unimpaired for future generations.
During the next five years the organization, which would drop the word "range" from its
name in 1959, promoted the park project by publishing newsletters, conducting jeep and
hiking excursions to the area's attractions, printing articles in major newspapers and state
and national periodicals, producing a 28-1/2-minute color film entitled "Great Basin Range
- Nevada", a brochure, and forty colored slides, for circulation in cooperation with the
26. Weldon F. Heald, "National Park Proposed for Nevada," National Parks Magazine, XXXI (July-September
1957), 99-102.
27. The papers and materials of the organization are in the Great Basin National Park Files at the Nevada
Historical Society, Reno.
380
Nevada Department of Economic Development, and contacting individuals, organizations,
and conservation groups throughout the nation.28
The National Parks Association supported the work of the Great Basin Range National Park
Association. Earlier in 1957 the executive committee of the National Parks Association voted
to support the 28,000-acre park proposal, but with the proviso that the area be reserved
in national monument status and appended to Lehman Caves.29 In the January-March
1958 issue of National Parks Magazine, Joseph F. Carithers, assistant western
representative of the National Parks Association, wrote:
In company with Darwin Lambert, president of the newly-formed Great Basin
Range National Park Association, I hiked up to Baker Lake in the heart of the
proposed park. . . . The trip carried us through scenic country which took on
an alpine look as we drew near the lake. We saw remnants of the great snow
pack that covers the region in winter and a tiny "iceberg" floating on the calm
water. Baker Lake and the beautifully proportioned crique above it are
unbelievably majestic.
Rich in scientific features, the Snake Range has a variety of plant life that is
astonishing in a region regarded by most people as a desert. Five life zones are
represented; the glaciation story to be read is outstanding; the animal life also
covers a broad variety. These facts strongly favor giving the area national park
protection.30
The publicity campaign of the Great Basin Range National Park Association resulted in calls
for a second, more thorough NPS investigation of the Snake Range as to the advisability
of establishing a national park in the Wheeler Peak-Lehman Caves area. On April 1 , 1 958,
Senators Bible and Malone introduced S. 3587 providing that the Secretary of the Interior
"investigate and report to the Congress" concerning the issue. That same day
Representative Walter S. Baring31 introduced H.R. 11799 as a companion bill to S. 3587.
The reactions of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of the Interior to these
bills are interesting to note. In a letter to Clair Engle, Chairman of the House Committee
on Interior and Insular Affairs, on July 3, 1958, Acting Secretary of Agriculture True D.
Morse commented on H.R. 11799:
We recommend that the bill be not enacted because (a) in a 1 957 survey this
Department concluded that the multiple resources of the area could be managed
better as a national forest than a national park, and (b) present authority to
28. Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National park," Part II, pp. 744-48. Examples of Heald's articles appearing
in national periodicals are "Wheeler Peak and Its Glacier," Nevada Highways and Parks, XVIII (1958), 3-6, and
"Nevada's Wheeler Peak and Great Basin Range - A Possible National Park," Nature Magazine, LI (June-July
1958), 314-17, 330.
29. Heald, "National Park Proposed for Nevada," 99.
30. Joseph F. Carithers, "Western Park Notes," National Parks Magazine, XXXII (January-March 1 958), 1 7-
18. Carithers elaborated on his hike to Baker Lake in a follow-up article. See Joseph F. Carithers, "Exploring the
Baker Creek Trail," National Parks Magazine. XXXII (April-June 1958), 71-73.
31. The Walter S. Baring Papers, which contain considerable data on his legislative efforts concerning Great
Basin National Park are located at the Nevada Historical Society, Reno.
32. Congressional Record - House, April 1, 1958, 85th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 104, Pt. 5, p. 6028, and
Congressional Record - Senate, April 1, 1858, 85th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 104, Pt. 5, p. 5878.
381
make the proposed study and report is adequate. But if the bill is favorably
considered by the committee, we recommend amendment as hereinafter
described.
Although we do not favor enactment of the bill, we believe that if the Congress
desires a report by the Secretary of the Interior on the national-park potentials
of the area, Congress should also have the information on the resources of the
area and their uses and management available to this Department as a result
of its nearly 50 years of administration. Therefore, if the bill is favorably
considered by the committee, we recommend that it be amended to authorize
and direct a report to the Congress by this Department as well as by the
Secretary of the Interior, particularly with respect to suitability of the area for
continued multiple use management and the impact that establishment of the
area of a national park would have upon the remaining national forest and users
of national-forest resources.
One week later, on July 10, Assistant Secretary of the Interior Roger Ernst wrote to Engle
concerning his department's response to H.R. 11799. He observed:
It is not believed that enactment of the bill is necessary.
The Department has adequate authority to conduct studies of any area thought
to possess scenic or other values that might qualify it for recognition as a unit
in the national park system. Under this authority preliminary reconnaissance of
the Wheeler Peak-Lehman Caves area has been made. Plans are now being
formulated for conducting more comprehensive studies of the entire Great Basin
area to determine whether Wheeler Peak and its environs (or any other section
of the basin) possess significance sufficient to warrant designation as a national
park or monument.
After consideration of H.R. 11799 and S. 3587, which already had passed the Senate
containing the proposed amendment by the Department of Agriculture, the House
Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs recommended House approval of S. 3587 on
August 8, 1958. The committee supported its recommendation by noting:
For the Congress to have adequate information on which to base a decision of
whether the area covered by the bill should or should not be erected into a
national park and, if so, what conditions should be attached to its creation, it is
important that it have a full, complete, and prompt review of the situation by the
departments chiefly concerned and their recommendations thereon.33
In response to this legislation the National Park Service conducted an extensive two-part
investigation of the Lehman Caves-Wheeler Peak area in 1958.34 As the result of a
reorganization Lehman Caves National Monument and hence the field reconnaissance had
been transferred to the Region Four office in San Francisco. A joint survey involving Park
33. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Providing That the Secretary of the
Interior Shall Investigate and Report to the Congress As To the Advisability of Establishing a National Park in
Wheeler Peak-Lehman Caves Area of the Snake Range in Eastern Nevada, H. Rept. 2526, 85th Cong., 2d Sess.,
1958, pp. 1-4.
34. In September 1958 the National Park Service requested permission from the Forest Service to make a
joint study of both the Lehman Caves-Wheeler Peak area and the Ruby Mountains. The Forest Service agreed
to an investigation of the Ruby Mountains. See Recreation Resource Planning, Status Sheet, Great Basin, Nevada
[1959], Legislative Files, Division of Legislation, Washington Office, National Park Service.
382
Service and Forest Service officials was led by James E. Cole, Chief, Branch of National
System Planning, on October 13-17. A second field reconnaissance, concentrating on
ecological concerns, was conducted by Daniel Burroughs, Chief, Branch of State
Cooperation, NPS, and Dr. Adolph Murie, a biologist from the University of California who
had done extensive work at Crater Lake National Park, from October 29 to November 13.
Various other individuals from local, state, and federal agencies and organizations
participated in portions of the investigation.
In February 1959 the Park Service published its report and recommendations based on the
field studies conducted the previous fall. The report recommended establishment of Great
Basin National Park, a 147,000-acre area comprising approximately the northern three-
fourths of the Snake Division of Humboldt National Forest as well as some 20,000 acres
lying outside the forest on public domain and about 3,000 acres of privately-owned lands.
The southern quarter of the national forest division had been left out because it included
a tungsten mine and was the primary winter habitat of the Lehman deer herd. It was
thought that hunting in that area could keep the deer population within carrying capacity,
thus avoiding damage to the projected park's vegetation. According to the report, the Great
Basin was
one of the major geographic divisions of North America and is not
characteristically represented by any unit of the National Park System. . . . The
Snake Range, culminating in Wheeler Peak (13,063 feet in altitude), and
portions of the adjacent lowland desert, are typical of the geologic structures
generally signified by the term Great Basin. ... All natural phenomena
associated with life in the Great Basin are exemplified within the study area.
Due to its greater height and central location within the Great Basin, the study
area interprets exceptionally well the ecological conception described by the
term sky island.
Thus, the proposed park envisioned "the preservation of a segment of the Great Basin."
The "outstanding resources of the area" were "ecological," but these were "augmented by
both geologic and scenic values having significant features" which could "be easily
interpreted." The report concluded:
The proposed area contains an assemblage of resources which in total warrant
addition as a unit to the National Park System. Wheeler Peak is the outstanding
mountain in the central and the typical part of the Great Basin. Ecology is the
principal theme and can be illustrated and interpreted better here than
elsewhere. Lehman Caves, which is included in the area, is an outstanding
geological exhibit. The glacial cirques, glacieret, (if such it turns out to be), and
geology of the Snake Range are significant additional interesting features. Major
use would consist, in addition to cave visitation, of nature study and
appreciation. The varied scenic, scientific and historic resources would be
interpreted by means of visitor centers, self-guiding nature and historic trails,
and supplemented trailside exhibits or markers. Other uses would include hiking,
horseback riding, picnicking, overnight camping, and general sightseeing. All but
about three percent of the land included in the proposed area is owned by the
Federal Government. The State of Nevada appears to be quite solidly behind
the proposal.35
35. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Region Four, "Field Investigation Report, Lehman
Caves-Wheeler Peak, October 13 to 17, 1958, October 29 to November 13, 1958, Portion of Southern Section of
Snake Range, White Pine county, Nevada," February, 1959, pp. 1-4, Files, Technical Information Center, Denver
Service Center.
383
While the Park Service was compiling this report a group of interested persons met at the
University of California, Berkeley, to discuss the justification for establishing the proposed
park. In attendance were representatives from the National Park Service and University of
Nevada and members of various conservation organizations, state agencies, and civic
groups. At the meeting it was agreed that the southern Snake Range warranted national
park status and offered good possibilities for interpreting the principal themes of the Great
Basin. It was felt that a larger portion of the range should be included in the park as well
as a representative sample of the adjacent desert landscape in Snake Valley. This would
increase the size of the proposed park to some 210,000 acres, including the portion of the
southern Snake Range between U.S. Highway 6-50 and Highland Ridge and some 20,000
acres of desert lowland northwest of Baker.36
The Forest Service mounted a counterattack against the proposals for a Great Basin
National Park in February 1959. In a strongly-worded article in American Forests CJ.
Olsen, who as supervisor of Nevada National Forest during the early 1930s had played a
leading role in the effort to have Lehman Caves National Monument transferred back to
Forest Service jurisdiction, opposed all efforts to establish a national park in the Wheeler
Peak vicinity and defended the merits of multiple use management of the area by the
Forest Service. Among other things he noted:
Under multiple use management, with the application of research methods and
through the cooperative efforts of the land managing agencies, the Nevada Fish
and Game Department, the sportsmen, those interested in recreation
development, the water users, the stockmen, and other interested groups, we
can have a permanent, productive and thriving economy, without the restrictions
necessarily imposed by a national park or national monument status.
I should add also that the proposed national park boundaries would leave a
narrow marginal area of forest and range lands in the Snake Range still under
Forest Service management, but awkward and expensive to administer
effectively.
My whole argument up to this point amounts to this: The special resources
which the national park system is designed most expressly to protect, make
available, and preserve, are already being made available, protected and
conserved.
On the one hand, therefore, little if anything that the public needs and wants
from the Mt. Wheeler area would be gained by making it into a national park;
on the other hand, much - very much - would be lost.
Olsen concluded the article by stating:
For half a century, the multiple-use doctrine has been tested in all of its
aspects, and has proved itself good. In consequence, I have no reluctance in
saying that multiple use, except in extraordinary situations, is the only policy that
can serve well enough the important purpose for which it was intended;
"Maximum good ... to the greatest number of people ... for the longest
possible period of time." The Mt. Wheeler area does not constitute such an
extraordinary situation.
36. "Results of Field Investigations for the Proposed Great Basin National Park, Nevada," Sierra Club Reprint
Series, No. 1, San Francisco, November 26, 1959, p. 1.
384
Even so, I am aware that national park status for the Mt. Wheeler area will
capture much public fancy. Over the most impressionable and the least informed
it will cast something of a spell. To all such as these it will loom as a bona fide
case of love at first sight, and hence a love quickly to be espoused. To still
others, though it looms as a flattering proposal, it will be something to be
thoughtfully weighed. And finally, to the judicious and the well-informed, it will
loom as an illicit affair, easy to get into, but burdensome to endure, and once
espoused impossible to shake.37
About the time that this article was being published the Forest Service announced the
establishment of the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area, a 28,000-acre enclave that included the
central portion of the proposed park and was nearly identical to the original park proposal
espoused by Darwin Lambert in 1956. Boundaries of the scenic area, which was designated
on February 13, 1959, extended along the crest of the Snake Range from Bald Mountain
to Granite Peak and eastward to include the upper and middle portions of the Lehman,
Baker, Snake, Big Wash, and Lexington Creek drainage basins. As advertised by the Forest
Service the area included Wheeler Peak and its glacieret, the world's largest mahogany
tree, several alpine lakes, two natural rock arches, superb views of Great Basin valleys and
mountain ranges, and bristlecone pine stands. Forest Service plans for the new reserve
included a program for extended recreational development made possible by "Operation
Outdoors," a government plan to expand national forest resources throughout the United
States to meet the demands of increasing numbers of tourists.
Forest Service officials were careful to note that plans for the scenic area would not
interfere with multiple-use forestry, livestock grazing, hunting, fishing, or mining. Resorts,
cabin camps, summer homes, and commercial enterprises would be allowed on lands
adjacent to the scenic area.
The initial phase in the development of the scenic area was to consist of construction of
a two-way road up Lehman Creek Canyon to Stella Lake, camping and picnic facilities near
the lake, and a trail to the Wheeler Peak glacieret. Plans also called for trail improvement
work and new campgrounds on lower Baker Creek and installation of rustic signs to guide
tourists to the features in the area.38
Proponents of a national park in the Wheeler Peak area viewed the Forest Service action
as a direct move to help undermine the park project. In defense of its move the Forest
Service stated that plans for the new reserve had originated several years earlier when the
Snake Range was under consideration for a proposed "Glacier Scenic Area" and that
development plans were announced in 1959 because the park proposal appeared
uncertain.39
Park proponents protested several components of the Forest Service plans for the scenic
area. In February the Great Basin National Park Association and the Nevada State Board
of Economic Development, while welcoming recognition of the scenic values of the area,
urged that the road to Stella Lake, camping and picnic facilities near the lake, and
construction of resorts, cabin camps, summer homes, and commercial enterprises adjacent
37. C.J. Olsen, "The Proposed Invasion at Mt. Wheeler," American Forests, LXV (February 1959), 17-19, 40,
42.
38. Reno Evening Gazette, April 29, 1959. See the following page for a map of the Wheeler Peak Scenic
Area.
39. U.S. Forest Service, Humboldt National forest, The Proposed Glacier Scenic Area (East Ely, Nevada,
1959), n.p.
385
386
to the area but within the proposed park boundaries "be abandoned in view of the active,
nation-wide movement for establishment of the national park in the area." In response to
these protests the Forest Service reluctantly agreed not to construct these improvements
until the park issue was settled.40
In March 1959 the results and recommendations of the 1958 NPS field investigation of the
Wheeler Peak-Lehman Caves area were submitted to the Advisory Board on National
Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings and Monuments. The board, composed of eminent historians,
architects, archeologists, and scientists from across the nation, had been established during
the mid-1 930s to evaluate and make recommendations to the Secretary of the Interior upon
proposals for inclusion of new areas in the National Park System. On April 28 the board,
while meeting at Shenandoah National Park, made the following recommendation:
The Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings and monuments,
having considered and recognized the scientific values of the Wheeler Peak-
Lehman Caves region of the Snake Range, Nevada, finds that it is
representative of the numerous Great Basin mountain ranges, and as such is
of national significance, and is suitable for preservation as an area under the
jurisdiction of the National Park Service.41
Upon learning of the advisory board's recommendation, Nevada Governor Grant Sawyer
announced his enthusiastic support for the park designation.
Soon thereafter on June 30, 1959, a Nevada Foundation for a National Park was
established with Peter T. Kelley, former director of the Nevada Department of Economic
Development, spearheading the movement. Following a meeting with the White Pine
Chamber of Commerce and Mines and representatives of the Great Basin National Park
Association in May, Kelley was appointed public relations counsel for the effort to establish
the foundation, composed of prominent Nevadans principally from outside White Pine
County to lead the campaign for the proposed national park. It was felt that a body of this
magnitude would help to secure the endorsement and support of many citizens and
organizations and aid in obtaining the necessary financial support to achieve legislative
enactment of the park. Heading the foundation as co-chairmen were the only two living
former governors of the state - Vail M. Pittman and Charles H. Russell. Other officers of
the foundation were Kelley, who was named secretary, Darwin Lambert, who was named
as treasurer, and a board of trustees made up of twenty prominent Nevada citizens.42
Legislation was introduced in both houses of Congress on September 9, 1959, providing
for establishment of Great Basin National Park. Senators Alan Bible and Howard W.
Cannon introduced S. 2664 "to preserve for the benefit and inspiration of the people a
representative segment of the Great Basin possessing outstanding ecological resources and
geological and scenic values." In his introductory comments Bible observed:
Mr. President, the interest and enthusiasm generated by the prospect of having
this region designated as a national park, are by no means confined to my
native State. Nature lovers and outdoor enthusiasts from many sections of the
40. Darwin Lambert, "Wheeler Peak Scenic Area," National Parks Magazine, XXXIII (April 1959). 13.
41. Darwin Lambert, "Great Basin 'Sky Island,'" National Parks Magazine, XXXIII (August 1959), 2, and
Nevada State Journal, May 1 0, 1 959.
42. Nevada State Journal, May 10, 1959, and Articles of Incorporation of Nevada Foundation For a National
Park, June 30, 1959, 86th Congress, 1959-60, Box 21, Folder 347, Cannon Papers, University of Nevada, Las
Vegas.
387
country have evinced more than passing interest in this proposal. On the home
front, prominent Nevadans, including two former Governors, have joined in
forming the Nevada Foundation for a National Park, and are vitally concerned
with the passage of this legislation.
This scenic wonderland covers approximately 147,000 acres of the Snake Range
and extends from the sagebrush desert up through the various life zones, and
includes a small but active glacier on Wheeler Peak, 13,063 feet above sea
level.
As any of my illustrious colleagues who have national parks within their States
well know, the scenic and scientific attractions are a steady magnet for visitors
from other States. To the uninitiated, Nevada is sometimes pictured as a barren
and desolate wasteland, a slander that this beautiful national park would
effectively destroy.
Cannon commented further:
Although perhaps little known, the proposed site is outstanding in scenery,
vegetation, and geology. Wheeler Peak, with an elevation of 13,063 feet, is the
second highest mountain in the State, and is the culminating point of the Giant
Snake range.
At the east base of Wheeler Peak, is the Lehman Caves National Monument,
a 1 -square-mile area preserving exceptional limestone caverns. High on the
north side of Wheeler Peak is the Matthes Glacier, the only known body of
moving ice in the entire great basin region.
The area also includes towering rock formations, natural arches, and groves of
huge twisted bristlecone pine, oldest trees in the world. There are also several
jewel-like lakes in the area, including the scenic Stella Lake.
All these outstanding features combine to make the area suitable for designation
as a national park. As such, it could serve our citizens as a site for nature
study and appreciation, hiking, horseback riding, boating, picnicking, overnight
camping, and for general sightseeing.43
That same day Representative Walter S. Baring introduced an identical bill, H.R. 9156, in
the House.44
During November 1959 the recent discovery of beryllium deposits near Mount Washington
was reported to National Park Service officials by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. When it
appeared that this discovery might cloud the Senate hearing on S. 2664 scheduled for Ely
on December 5, NPS Associate Director Ewind T. Scoyen advised that the hearing not be
canceled. The Park Service position, according to Scoyen, "should be that we do not
consider extraction of beryllium minerals to be an insurmountable obstacle to establishment
of the park." He pointed out that "if necessary" the "authorizing legislation could include
43. Congressional Record - Senate, September 9, 1959, 86th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 105, Pt. 14, pp. 18679-
80.
44. Congressional Record - House, September 9, 1959, 86th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 105, Pt. 14, p. 18864.
388
provisions for mining similar to those for Glacier Bay and Organ Pipe Cactus National
Monuments."45
During December 5-7, 1959, hearings on S. 2664 were conducted in Ely to determine local
and regional sentiment regarding the proposed legislation. Senator Bible presided over the
hearings as chairman of the Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Senate Committee on
Interior and Insular Affairs.46 Some 68 oral and written statements and 90 communications
were presented at the hearings. Of the 158 respondents 68 were favorable and 90 were
unfavorable to the proposed legislation.47
At the hearings the park bill had the support of a wide variety of citizens and organizations.
Appearing for the bill were the mayor of Ely; the chairman of the White Pine County
commissioners, representing also the state association of county commissioners; a
representative of Nevada Governor Grant Sawyer; Vail M. Pittman, representing the Nevada
Foundation for a National Park; the president of the Nevada Federation of Business and
Professional Women's Clubs; and a number of scientists, professors, and conservationists
from Nevada and other states. As the Department of the Interior had not completed its
formal report on S. 2664, Park Service representatives attended the hearings to answer
questions but not to present testimony.
Proponents of the park legislation stressed the advantages of establishing a national park.
Preservation of the natural and scenic qualities of the area would be insured. The reserve
would enhance the prestige of White Pine County and the State of Nevada and serve as
a major tourist attraction. The park would provide a facility for interpreting the aesthetic,
educational, and scientific values of the Snake Range and the Great Basin. A park would
benefit the local and regional economy of eastern Nevada by attracting increased tourism
to the area.
Testimony opposing the park bill was presented by representatives of the Nevada Farm
Bureau, Nevada Mining Association, Nevada Fish and Game Commission, Nevada Wool
Growers, Nevada Cattle Association, U.S. Forest Service, and affiliated groups. The
opposition stressed the continued "desirability of multiple use" management of the area as
practiced by the Forest Service. Testimony opposing the park indicated that three existing
uses which they feared the proposed park would ultimately eliminate were grazing, hunting,
and mining. The recent discovery of beryllium deposits in the Mount Washington area was
considered by most impartial observers, however, as being "the only conflicting use that
might be of enough significance to delay or seriously modify the park proposal."48
The testimony presented at the hearings showed that the Forest Service, together with area
mining, grazing, timber, and hunting interests, was mounting a major campaign to defeat
the proposed bill. The arguments presented by these interest groups not only succeeded
in defeating the bill but also echoed the principal objections that would be leveled against
proposed park legislation for the next 27 years. Floyd Iverson, regional forester in charge
of the Intermountain Region of the Forest Service, and John Herbert, a former supervisor
45. Recreation Resource Planning, Status Sheet, Great Basin, Nevada, [1959], Legislative Files, Division of
Legislation, Washington Office, National Park Service.
46. "Conservation News Briefs," National Parks Magazine, XXXIII (December 1959), 13.
47. 1959 Ely Hearings, pp. 1-250.
48. Darwin Lambert, "Great Basin - Pro and Con," National Parks Magazine, XXXIV (February 1960), 13,
and Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National Park," Part II, pp. 760-65.
389
in Nevada National Forest, presented spirited testimony in defense of their bureau's
multiple-use management policies at the Ely hearings:
Some 85 percent of the proposed national park, therefore, is publicly owned
land reserved for national forest purposes. This land is under intensive
protection and administration for public purposes and is fully available for public
use. Protection, conservation, and development of the resources are assured.
The Forest Service administers national forest lands on a multiple-use basis.
And under multiple-use management, all of the renewable resources are made
available and managed so as to contribute most to the local and national
economy on a sustained basis. Multiple-use management provides for the
protection and perpetuation of scenic, aesthetic, and scientific features where
such are present in the national forests. It provides for development and full
utilization of recreation, conservation, and use of other resources of a given
area.
The Snake division, though small, is truly a multiple-use area. It is typical of
many other western mountain ranges, and . . . does not have the unique and
spectacular features that characterize the national parks.
Resources of this national forest unit include watersheds highly important to the
local economy and to the production of usable water for irrigation, domestic use,
recreation, and fish and wildlife. The unit includes opportunities for hunting,
fishing, camping, hiking, sightseeing, and other forms of outdoor recreation. The
lands bear some 250 million board feet of timber, provide habitat for deer and
other wildlife, and furnish forage for domestic livestock. Gold, silver, lead, and
tungsten have been found and mined from these lands and recent activities
indicate that other important minerals may be present in commercial form.
Under questioning the Forest Service officials admitted that the designation of the Wheeler
Peak Scenic Area was "strictly an administrative matter" and had "no legal basis." Pursuant
to the regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture, the regional forester was authorized to
designate such areas and could abolish or change them at his discretion. As to whether
the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area had been designated to defeat the idea of establishing a
national park, the Forest Service officials stated:
This is part of a much broader question which exists elsewhere in the country.
We know at the present time of about 30 areas in the national forest that have
been proposed by various individuals and groups to be made into State parks,
national parks, national monuments, or recreation areas. And the total acres are
some 10 or 12 million acres of national forest land that is involved. We are
experiencing the same pressures of population and increase in demand for
recreation use as a result of more leisure time, greater accessibility of more
people. Where there's so many of these areas we would defer our normal
administrative response to these questions or continue to develop national
forests recreationalwise until these issues were settled. But we decided that
there were too many areas and too large an acreage involved for us to do that
and so we concluded that although our motivations might be questioned in
some cases, that the thing for us to do was to act as we normally would in the
course of our management development, and that was what we did in this
case.49
49. 1959 Ely Hearings, pp. 37, 39, 43-44, 47, 52-57.
390
One of the spokesmen for the grazing interests opposing the park bill was Stanley Ellison,
president of the Nevada Wool Growers Association. Among other things, he stated:
We are opposed to the park because the future welfare of Nevada depends
upon the development and use of all its resources. Our sheep association
believes in multiple use. This area is best managed under the multiple use
principle, which allows use of the forage for livestock and game, allows hunting,
and allows the development and use of minerals, water, timber and areas for
recreation.
Such areas as the Snake Range are particularly important to our livestock
industry because they are very limited in the State. The summer range that
these areas provide is a "key" period or vital link in the ranchers' year around
operation of his livestock. Without such summer range the tax properties and
base lands are thrown out of balance.
We understand that livestock operators who own approximately 10,000 acres of
farm and ranch land in the surrounding valleys, will be adversely affected by the
establishment of the proposed national park. On the national forest area alone,
these permittees now graze 2,811 head of sheep for a total of 8,433 sheep-
months, and 857 head of cattle for 3,232 cow-months.
In addition, the proposed park area will withdraw approximately 21,000 acres of
land from grazing which is now being administered by the Bureau of Land
Management of the U.S. Department of the Interior under the Taylor Grazing
Act.
Certainly the present conservative and wise multiple use of these and other
lands is a tremendous factor in the economy and the structure of this State and
the 11 Western States. If these industries are reduced or eliminated through
curtailment of the multiple use of our Federal lands, which the establishment of
a park does, our income will be reduced. Also there will be a reduction in tax
funds for schools, roads and other public needs. Twenty-five percent of all
moneys received during any fiscal year by the Forest Service is paid to the
State for the benefit of public schools and public roads of the counties in which
a national forest is located.
We are also opposed to the creation of this park because it will be a breeding
ground for predators. Predators cause large losses to livestock and game. It is
estimated that to control such predators that would drift off the park, additional
funds equal to 20 percent of the present predator budget of White Pine and
Lincoln Counties would be needed.60
George N. Swallow, general manager of the C-B Land Co., represented the views of many
area ranchers in opposing the bill at the hearings. In his testimony Swallow stated:
I am representing Swallow Bros. Swallow Bros, is engaged in the ranching and
livestock business in White Pine County, Nev. We operate 419 cattle in the
area included in the 147,000 acres as proposed in Senate bill 2664 to establish
the Great Basin National Park. Should this national park be established it would
be impossible to continue operating the 419 head of cattle we now operate for
50. Ibid, pp. 71-72.
391
a 90-day period on the Humboldt National Forest on the Snake Range. The
eventual elimination of these livestock will jeopardize Swallow Bros, livestock
operation to the extent that it will be economically unsound to operate at all.
The fact that our livestock operation would be materially jeopardized and that
we would be hurt financially is not the most important reason that we are
opposed to establishing a national park in the White Pine County on the Snake
Range. A basic principal is involved here, one of multiple use and the
exploration and development of our agricultural, mineral, timbering, hunting, and
fishing resources. We feel other livestock operations, mines, timber, hunting, and
fishing all contribute to the general welfare of White Pine County, the State of
Nevada, and the Nation.51
The mining interests were represented at the hearings by such men as James D. Williams,
president and general manager of Mount Wheeler Mines, Inc., and Bruce Odium, president
of Beryllium Resources, Inc. Williams testified that the park bill should be withdrawn for
three reasons:
1. The mineral potential of the area is very significant and with recent
beryllium discoveries now a matter of public knowledge, search for this
and other minerals in the area will undoubtedly be greatly accelerated.
A park would forestall any such exploration and development and deny
the United States the advantage of these necessary mineral discoveries.
2. Generally the physical characteristics of the area are not conducive to
a park area. The usual recreational assets are totally absent and the
cost of providing reasonable facilities would be prohibitive.
3. There are little if any natural wonders for the visitor to observe and most
of the unusual in the way of rare trees is located on presently held
mining claims.52
Odium supported Williams' testimony by describing the negative impact that the park's
establishment would have on mining development:
The aforementioned beryllium ore occurs at Mount Wheeler and it is the
intention of Beryllium Resources to expand its exploration and development of
its present mining activities at Mount Wheeler in the hopes of developing a
major beryllium mining industry in the area. It is the hope that with a successful
mining enterprise, ultimately the extraction plants would be constructed in the
area, thereby contributing to Nevada's industrial complex and economic wealth.53
While the proposed park legislation continued to be debated, the Pacific Southwest Field
Committee Conference was held in Ely on October 19-20, 1960. The conference, one of
six regional conferences held in the United States each year to coordinate the work of the
various Interior Department bureaus into a unified effort, was attended by regional directors
of the department's bureaus west of the Continental Divide. This conference was held in
Ely because of the interest generated by the proposed park. The meeting focused on
51. Ibid, p. 225.
52. Ibid, p. 203.
53. Ibid., p. 213.
392
coordinating the efforts of the Interior bureaus for the proposed park's establishment. It was
generally agreed that such a reserve would be an economic asset to eastern Nevada and
could be made more acceptable to those interests opposing the park with certain land use
modifications. The meeting supported further studies including a beryllium mineralization
investigation of Mount Washington by the U.S. Bureau of Mines, a geological study of
Wheeler Peak by the U.S. Geological Survey, and a study of local grazing, conservation,
and wildlife problems by other Interior Department bureaus.54
Because of continuing opposition S. 2664 never reached a vote during the 86th Congress,
primarily as a result of opposition from mining and grazing interests. Thus, Senators Bible
and Cannon and Representative Baring introduced new identical bills (S. 1760 on May 3,
1961, and H.R. 6873 on May 8, 1961) in the first session of the 87th Congress for
establishment of a Great Basin National Park. The new bills made significant concessions
to the mining and grazing interests and reduced the size of the proposed park from
147,000 acres to 124,540 acres. When he introduced S. 1760 on the Senate floor Bible
stated:
During the past 2 years, extensive hearings in the field have been held to
attempt to reconcile the divergent views of the conservationists on the one hand,
and local mining and grazing interests on the other.
Of particular concern was the discovery of a very valuable beryllium deposit on
the borders of the proposed park area. Over half a million dollars is being
currently expended by one of America's largest mining companies in exploration
to discover the extent and location of this mineral so necessary in the
furtherance of our space program. In order to protect the possibility of
establishing a valuable industry that could employ many men in this presently
depressed mining area, I have included in the present measure a section that
would permit the continuation of prospecting, exploration, and mining within the
park, limiting the activity to that necessary to the actual process of valid mining
requirements.
Likewise, I have included a section that would permit present grazers to
continue the use of the park area for 25 years plus the lifetime of the holders
of grazing permits.
Both of these sections have precedent in other areas and cannot be considered
an innovation in the establishment of National Parks.55
The Department of the Interior quickly recommended enactment of S. 1760 subject to
several amendments. In a letter to Clinton P. Anderson, chairman of the Senate Committee
on Interior and Insular Affairs on June 16, 1961, Secretary of the Interior Stewart L. Udall
commented on the boundary reduction from the earlier park proposal:
The bill describes an area that is smaller by some 22,000 acres than the 146-
540-acre recommended for park establishment as a result of studies conducted
by the National Park Service. The boundary in the bill eliminates about 14,320
acres of land lying in the northeast portion of our original study area. While
these lands are ecologically significant, similar but less representative biological
54. Ely Daily Times, October 21, 1960, and Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National Park," Part II, pp. 766-
67.
55. Congressional Record - Senate, May 3, 1961, 87th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 107, Pt. 6, p. 7037, and
Congressional Record - House, May 8, 1961, 87th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 107, Pt. 6, p. 7571.
393
habitats are included within the park as proposed in S. 1760. We do not,
therefore, consider the excluded area essential to the project.
S. 1760 also eliminates from the original study area the equivalent of about 12
sections of land situated along the west boundary of the proposed park. We
understand that there is a proposal to delete two additional sections along this
westerly boundary. If the proposal is accepted it will result in an aggregate
reduction in this portion of the study area of approximately 8,960 acres of
unsurveyed land. These lands contain an undetermined number of patented
and unpatented mining locations. We further understand that extensive
explorations for beryllium and other minerals may soon be undertaken in this
general area and that, if these sections are excluded, much of the exploratory
work affecting the park lands could be done by slant drilling from these locations
outside the park.
We would prefer to have these sections proposed for exclusion remain in the
park because they are an integral part of the physiographic features originally
recommended for preservation as a unit of the National Park System.
Moreover, such inclusion would not adversely affect valid existing claims,
locations or entries, and the removal of minerals could be accomplished in
accordance with section 5 of the bill. Nevertheless, we feel that exclusion of
these lands on the west side of the proposed park would not detract seriously
from its values. The retracted boundary falls about midway between the foot of
the range and its crest. While this location will increase the protective and
administrative problems, it is far superior to a boundary along the crest, in this
instance, since the high peaks are a significant feature of the proposed park.
Udall also proposed that Section 7 of the bill be revised to eliminate "some ambiguities" on
grazing and "to reflect an intent that when lands are transferred from a national park status
no greater grazing privileges are acquired." The estimated cost of establishing and
operating the new park would require annual expenditures in excess of $1,000,000,
including $150,000 to purchase the private inholdings.56
Several days later Secretary of Agriculture Orville L. Freeman wrote to Senator Anderson
giving his department's response to S. 1760. Among other things, he observed:
Approximately 94 percent of the lands making up the national park that this bill
would create are national forest lands and have been under the jurisdiction and
management of this Department for more than 50 years.
We believe that the public interest has been, and would continue to be,
adequately served by retention of these lands in national forest status and
continued management under principles adopted by the Congress for the
national forests in the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act of June 12, 1960. We
further believe that the bill could have undesirable results from the standpoint
of both the national parks and the national forest.
However, if Congress concluded that "creation of a national park from these national forest
lands" was "desirable," the department would not raise objection if the bill was amended.
56. Udall to Anderson, June 16, 1961, in 1961 Hearing, pp. 4-7.
394
Freeman defended Forest Service administration of the Snake Division of Humboldt National
Forest and elaborated on the beneficial economic impact of those management policies. He
commented:
The 117,100 acres of national forest land which make up almost all of this
proposed national park are a part of the Snake division of the Humboldt
National Forest. ... As a part of the national forest system these lands and
their resources have been, and are being protected, husbanded, and made
available for utilization under the multiple-use principles appropriate to national
forest lands.
The recreational resources are getting increased use each year. To
accommodate the 51,000 recreation visits in 1960, picnic, camping, and trailer
parking facilities have been provided. Additional facilities are planned to meet
future needs as these develop. The timber resources, though not large, would
sustain an annual sustained cut of 1 to 1-1/2 million board feet. Some 1,200
Christmas trees are sold annually, and an estimated 6,000 pounds of pinon nuts
are harvested in good years. The area provides key summer range for 2,81 1
sheep and 857 cattle under national forest grazing permits. The mineral
resources have been prospected and are being developed under the general
mining laws. The area's estimated game herd of 3,000 mule deer has been
actively hunted each year by some 500 hunters. The water resource is
characteristic of high mountain ranges that rise out of desert surroundings. It
provides domestic water and water supply for some 10,000 acres of nearby
farms and ranch lands.
This Department believes that the land and resources of this area and the
demands for resources and services meet the criteria for national forest land;
that our administration of this area has been in accord with the policies and
directives of Congress; and that such administration has been a direct benefit
to the surrounding economy and people.
The Secretary of Agriculture was particularly irked by the fact that S. 1760, with its
concessions to mining and grazing interests, would blur the traditional distinction between
national parks and national forests. In this vein, he noted:
Normally, national parks serve two primary purposes - preservation and
recreation. They are not normally open to mineral exploration and development,
to livestock grazing, nor to hunting under State laws; likewise, the timber in
national parks is not available for commercial utilization.
Under S. 1760, however, special provisions are included which would permit
continuation of prospecting and mining and livestock grazing. The minor amount
of fishing in the area would also continue as in other parks. These special
provisions of the bill would dictate the same type of use for the proposed
national park that the area now receives as a national forest with the exception
that the small amount of logging now underway would be precluded and hunting
would no longer be permitted under State laws. Some form of hunting could, we
understand, be carried on under regulations of the Secretary of the Interior.
Arrangements to allow this have been under consideration.
Enactment of this bill to establish a national park with these specially permitted
uses would make the park similar in its objectives to the national forests and
would partially destroy what has been the traditional and well-understood
395
distinction in both purpose and management between the national parks and the
national forests. This, we believe to be undesirable.
The uses that would be permitted in the proposed park and their similarity to
the national forest uses that are now underway indicate that no special purpose
would be served by converting this area from national forest to national park
status. It is possible that advocates of a national park seek primarily to attach
the national park name to this area with the hope of capitalizing commercially
on that name by developing sufficient additional tourism.
While Freeman recommended various minor boundary adjustments, his main concern
focused on the 55,000 acres that would remain in the Snake Division if the park were
established. This area, primarily at the south end of the park, would be isolated from other
parts of the national forest. As these lands would be difficult for the Forest Service to
manage, it "would be desirable that this residual area be added to the park or even more
perfectly be returned to public domain." Thus, he recommended that S. 1760 be amended
to address this concern.
A public hearing on S. 1760 was conducted in Washington, D.C., on August 3, 1961, with
Senator Bible, Chairman of the Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Committee on Interior
and Insular Affairs, presiding. Opening testimony was presented by Senator Cannon of
Nevada:
I believe that the language of S. 1760 has minimized the possibilities of adverse
effect to the greatest extent practicable. The concessions made to the mining
and grazing interests are rather magnanimous; and though not without
precedent, they are not in any sense common to the national park program.
I believe that to further modify the language would negate the advantages which
might otherwise result from a national park designation.
May I comment briefly on what I feel to be the advantages which would accrue
not only to the Ely area, but to the entire State from the creation of this park.
First of all, I think it is undeniable that Ely, as a one-industry community, would
benefit economically by the type of diversification which a park would afford. The
history of national park visitation gives ample evidence as to the increase which
accrues once a park is created. For example, in the Great Smoky Mountains
National Park in North Carolina, the travel increased by 88 percent in a 10-
year period, and the number of visitors increased by 140 percent during this
same period following the establishment of this area as a national park. The 2-
1/2 million visitors in 1956 spent over $28 million in the cities and towns around
the park area.
In addition to the economic advantages, I feel that the area involved is of such
unusual nature as to warrant park designation simply on the basis of its
aesthetic value.
Unless we take steps to protect those areas possessing such outstanding
features, they will gradually be overrun and reformed until such time as they no
longer exist for the benefit and pleasure of future generations.
57. Freeman to Anderson, June 20, 1961, in 1961 Hearing, pp. 7-9. Freeman sent an identical letter to Wayne
N. Aspinwall, Chairman of the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, on June 21, 1961, concerning H.R.
6873. Legislation Files, Division of Legislation, Washington Office, National Park Service.
396
At the hearing testimony was presented by Secretary Udall, NPS Director Conrad L. Wirth;
U.S. Forest Service Assistant Chief Edward C. Crafts; Darwin Lambert; Nevada Fish and
Game Commission Secretary William H. Gravelle; and Louis S. Clapper, Chief, Division of
Conservation Education, National Wildlife Federation. Udall and Wirth reflected the
aforementioned Interior Department's position on the proposed legislation, while Crafts did
the same for the Agriculture Department. Lambert reiterated the long publicized views of
the Great Basin National Park Association, while Gravelle and Clapper represented the
opposition views held by hunting and wildlife interests. Various communications were also
received by the subcommittee from conservation and wildlife organizations, mining
companies, ranchers, and state agencies representing their long-held views on the park
proposal.58
On September 12, 1961, the Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs
recommended passage of S. 1760 subject to several amendments. The principal changes
recommended by the committee were the grazing amendment proposed by the Department
of the Interior and the elimination of two additional sections in the Mount Washington area,
thus reducing the size of the proposed park to 123,260 acres.59
S. 1760 reached the Senate floor on January 23, 1962, and two days later the
amendments recommended by the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs were adopted
"en bloc" without objection. During debate of the bill on January 25, Senator Bible defended
the park proposal, explaining why he felt its establishment "would be to the benefit of the
people of his State, as compared with the uses which in the past have been made of the
area when it was national forest land." He observed:
I believe the status of a national park will increase the national significance of
the area, and I believe it will thus become more attractive to those who travel
in the West. We in Nevada conceive of this park as being part of a group of
great western scenic attractions located in Utah and Nevada. For example, it will
tie in very well with Zion National Park, Bryce Canyon National Park, Lake Mead
Recreational Area, and Grand Canyon National Park, which is located in
northern Arizona. I am convinced that the establishment of a national park in
this area will give it far greater attractiveness and will make it of far more
national significance than if the land continued to be operated by the Forest
Service.
I may say that until the present time, until an attempt was made to create a
national park in the area, the whole area rather fell into disuse. But when the
Forest Service found that a national park may be created there, the Forest
Service showed intense interest in improving the area itself. But I am convinced
that it would be better to establish a national park there.
After further debate the amended bill was passed by the Senate and sent to the House,
where it was referred to that chamber's Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs on
January 26.60
58. 1961 Hearing, pp. 10-86.
59. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Great Basin National Park, Nev., S.
Rept. 983, 87th Cong., 1st Sess., 1961, pp. 1-12.
60. Congressional Record - Senate, January 23, and 25, 1962, 87th Cong. 2d Sess., Vol. 108, Pt. 1, pp.
736-37, 894, and 908-16, and Congressional Record- House, January 26, 1962, 87th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 108,
Pt. 1, p. 1018.
397
President John F. Kennedy endorsed the park legislation in a "Special Message to the
Congress on Conservation" on March 1, 1962. In the speech he stated:
Last year's Congressional approval of the Cape Cod National Seashore Area
should be regarded as the path-breaker for many other worthy park land
proposals pending before Congress. I urge favorable action on legislation to
create . . . Great Basin National Park in Nevada. . . . Acquisition of these park
lands would be financed through the "Land Acquisition Fund."61
After the bill was referred to the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs the
mining, grazing, and hunting interests, to whom concessions had already been made, united
to further dilute its provisions. At a meeting of these interest groups in Ely on June 6, 1962,
four amendments to the proposed legislation were adopted. Representative Baring, who had
earlier introduced an identical bill (H.R. 7863) to S. 1760, now became the rallying point
for these interests who still felt that S. 1760, as amended, was detrimental to their
economic welfare. Accordingly, Baring recommended four amendments to the park bill at
a meeting of the House Committee of Interior and Insular Affairs on June 11, 1962. These
proposals, which limited the park boundaries to the Snake Creek drainage and northward
and which resulted in the bill dying in committee, were: (1) a decrease in the park acreage
from 123,260 acres to some 53,120 acres; (2) provision that all laws of the United States
related to mining should extend to the park subject to such regulations as the Secretary of
the Interior might prescribe for specific uses of park lands, but that such lands .located and
patented under the mining laws should be used solely for mining or processing operations
or uses reasonably incident thereto; (3) continuation of grazing on park lands without
reduction or eventual termination, thus elevating grazing permits to the status of a right or
interest in federal lands; and (4) continuation of hunting in the park under state regulation
with the proviso that the Secretary of the Interior could designate closed areas.62
In response to a request by Wayne N. Aspinwall, Chairman of the House Committee on
Interior and Insular Affairs, Secretary of the Interior Udall submitted comments on the
Baring amendments on July 9, 1962. The secretary "strongly" recommended "against
adoption of the proposed amendments." He stated:
We believe that S. 1760, as it passed the Senate on January 25, 1962,
embodies the minimum requirements in terms of area and land use for the
proposed Great Basin National Park. The amendments now offered, if adopted,
would so diminish the area and subject the remaining lands and features to
such impairment that it would not qualify for recognition as a national park.
Section I of the bill would be amended to exclude about 70,240 acres from the
proposed boundary. This would eliminate the entire southern third of the
proposed park plus peripheral segments to the north and east containing
resources of great recreational, ecological and biological significance.
Among the significant resources that would be eliminated from the park by such
amendment were lowland desert, overthrust shield, stands of Bristlecone pines, the
Lexington Arch and Big Wash Canyon, native cutthroat trout in Pine and Ridge creeks, and
61. "Special Message to the Congress on Conservation, March 1, 1962," Public Papers of the Presidents of
the United States, John F. Kennedy, Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and Statements of the President,
January 1 to December 31, 1962 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1963), p. 179.
62. Waite, "Proposed Great Basin National Park," Part II, pp. 770-73.
398
the Willard Creek Valley. According to Udall, elimination of these areas from the proposed
park would
completely disrupt the ecological concept of the Great Basin story. The reduced
area could not protect and display the great physiographic, geologic, biotic, and
geographic features that typify this region of North America. Moreover, the
roads, parking overlooks, interpretive stations, and campsites which are needed
to interpret and make these areas accessible could not be developed, and the
few alternate sites would be inadequate.63
The park issue lay dormant until June 26, 1963, when Congressman Baring introduced H.R.
7283, a bill including the proposals he had made in committee the previous year. Since this
park bill was unsuitable to park proponents it languished in committee.64
President Kennedy continued to support the park legislative efforts of Senators Bible and
Cannon. In remarks at the Convention Center in Las Vegas on September 28, 1963, he
urged:
And ... the remaining unspoiled shoreline of Lake Tahoe, the gem of the
Sierras, must be preserved for future generations, along with the Great Basin
National Park, as proposed by your Senators.65
On March 24, 1964, some nine months after Baring introduced H.R. 7283, the Department
of the Interior responded to the measure. In his letter to Representative Aspinwall, Assistant
Secretary of the Interior John A. Carver, Jr., stated:
We favor the establishment of a Great Basin National Park in the area of the
Snake Mountain Range in east-central Nevada. We are convinced, however,
from our studies of the area that the 53,120 acres set aside under the bill are
not sufficient to include representative examples of the varied and striking
terrain, geologic features, weather conditions, and plant and animal life in the
Great Basin Region, or to provide adequate space for visitor use. In addition,
we believe that the provisions of the bill governing mining, grazing, and hunting
within the park do not adequately protect park values.
Thus, the department submitted a substitute draft bill which met "what we regard as
minimum requirements in terms of area and land use for a Great Basin National Park." The
draft bill was "identical in substance to S. 1760, 87th Congress, as passed by the Senate
on January 25, 1962." According to Carver, the draft bill provided for a park comprising
123,360 acres that "would typify the Great Basin and provide adequate space for the
development of roads, parking overlooks, interpretive stations, and campsites for visitor
use." The draft bill also provided "for the return of approximately 55,000 acres of lands in
the Humboldt National Forest, which are not included within the park but are adjacent
63. Udall to Aspinwall, July 9, 1962, Legislative Files, Division of Legislation, Washington Office, National Park
Service.
64. Congressional Record- House, June 26, 1963, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 109, Pt. 9, p. 11793.
65. "Remarks at the Convention Center in Las Vegas, Nevada, September 28, 1963," Public Papers of the
Presidents of the United States, John F. Kennedy, Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and Statements
of the President, January 1 to November 22, 1963 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1964), p. 748.
399
thereto, to the administrative jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Interior," as the Department
of Agriculture had recommended in its report on S. 1760 in 1961.66
No further legislative action on the proposed park occurred in the 88th Congress, but in the
first session of the 89th Congress three park bills were introduced. On January 15, 1965,
Senators Bible and Cannon introduced the first of these bills as S. 499, which was virtually
identical to the measure passed by the Senate on January 25, 1962. In his remarks on the
floor, Bible observed that in "view of the accepted urgency to protect great natural assets
such as the area under consideration, I am hopeful that favorable action will be had during
the 89th Congress."67
Several weeks later, on February 8, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson lent his support
to the effort to establish Great Basin National Park. In a "Special Message to the Congress
on Conservation and Restoration of Natural Beauty" on February 8, 1965, Johnson noted:
Our present system of parks, seashores and recreation areas - monuments to
the dedication and labor of far-sighted men - do not meet the needs of a
growing population.
The full funding of the Land and Water Conservation Fund will be an important
step in marking this a Parks-for-America decade.
The president proposed to use this fund to acquire lands needed to establish such areas
as Great Basin National Park.68
The Interior and Agriculture departments both submitted reports on S. 499 to Senator Henry
M. Jackson, Chairman of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, on May 14 and May
21, 1965, respectively. While echoing his earlier response to S. 1760, Secretary of the
Interior Udall observed that provisions for mining and grazing, similar to those in S. 499,
had been included in the Canyonlands National Park bill in the 88th Congress. However,
on the disagreeing votes of the two Houses of Congress on the amendments
of the House of Representatives to that bill, the committee of conference deleted
the mining and mineral leasing provisions and limited the time for grazing to the
term of the existing lease, permit, or license and one period of renewal
thereafter. The Canyonlands National Park bill was enacted into law in this form.
While special provisions for limited mineral activity and grazing may be
unobjectionable in certain circumstances, it is our judgment that in the long run
these uses conflict with the public enjoyment of a park. Such provisions may
therefore require further congressional consideration at a later date. For this
66. John A. Carver, Jr., Assistant Secretary of the Interior to Aspinwall, March 24, 1964, Legislative Files,
Division of Legislation, Washington Office, National Park Service.
67. Congressional Record - Senate, January 15, 1965, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 111, Pt. 1, pp. 696, 705,
and "The Conservation Docket," National Parks Magazine, XXXIX (April 1965), 21.
68. "Special Message to the Congress on Conservation and Restoration of Natural Beauty, February 8, 1965,"
Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Lyndon B. Johnson, Containing the Public Messages,
Speeches, and Statements of the President, 1965 (In Two Books), Book I - January 1 to May 31, 1965
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1966), p. 158.
400
reason we prefer that the park be established without authorization for such
uses.69
In his report to Senator Jackson Secretary of Agriculture Freeman also reiterated much of
his earlier report on S. 1760. It is interesting to note that he repeated his earlier concerns
about a blurring of distinction between national parks and national forests based on the
mining and grazing provisions in S. 499, an issue alluded to by Udall in his reference to
the Canyonlands legislation. Freeman, for his part, noted:
Continuation of prospecting and mining and livestock grazing which would be
permitted by the special provisions in S. 499 in the proposed Park are generally
considered nonconforming uses of a National Park.
We understand that the provisions of S. 499 will, under the physical and other
circumstances existing for this area, meet minimum requirements for National
park needs. However, we are concerned that as uses which are normally not
permitted in our National Parks are provided for in legislation the traditional, well
understood, and desirable distinction in both purpose and management between
the National Parks and the National Forests will be lost. We believe this would
be undesirable and that it is important to retain this long-established distinction
in the administration of our Federal lands.70
In 1965 Representative Baring introduced two park bills. On March 11 he submitted H.R.
6122, which was virtually identical to legislation (H.R. 7283) he had initiated in June 1963.71
Later on July 26, 1965, Baring introduced H.R. 10084, which called for establishment of a
28,000-acre Great Basin National Recreation Area to be administered by the Department
of Agriculture.72
The Great Basin National Recreation Area bill provided that the Secretary of Agriculture
"shall permit hunting, fishing, and trapping on the lands and waters" of the area "in
accordance with the applicable laws and regulations of Nevada." Under the proposed
legislation the secretary would
administer the area for the general purposes of public recreation, benefit, and
use, and in a manner that will preserve, develop, and enhance, so far as
practicable, the recreation potential, and that will preserve the scenic, scientific,
and other important features of the area, consistent with applicable reservations
and limitations relating to such area and with other authorized uses of the lands
and properties within the area.
69. Udall to Jackson, May 14, 1965, 89th Congress, 1965-66, Box 29, Cannon Papers, University of Nevada,
Las Vegas.
70. Freeman to Jackson, May 21, 1965, 89th Congress, 1965-66, Box 29, Cannon Papers, University of
Nevada, Las Vegas.
71. Congressional Record - House, March 11, 1965, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. Ill, Pt. 4, p. 4825. The
Interior Department reacted to this bill as it had to H.R. 7283 on March 24, 1965. Udall to Aspinwall, May 14,
1965, 89th Congress, 1965-66, Box 29, Cannon Papers, University of Nevada, Las Vegas. On June 4, 1965, the
Agriculture Department responded by urging adoption of Interior's substitute bill if the park was established.
72. Congressional Record- House, July 26, 1965, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. Ill, Pt. 13, p. 18167.
401
The secretary would provide for four principal activities, "subject to a general regulation
designed to preserve the scenic, scientific, and recreational values of the area." These
were:
1. General recreation use such as, but not limited to, skiing, camping,
hunting, fishing, picnicking, hiking, ice skating, bathing, boating.
2. Grazing.
3. Mineral leasing and mineral entry.
4. Vacation cabin site use, and privately owned commercial recreational
development use, in accordance with exiting policies of the Department
of Agriculture relating to such uses.73
On the same day that he introduced H.R. 10084 Baring issued a press release stating that
the bill, together with H.R. 6122, presented "the people of Nevada a choice of either a
small park or a recreation area" and represented his "honest attempt to effect a
compromise of this highly controversial issue." The press release noted that H.R. 10084
"would pave the way to the creation of a $20 to $30 million winter sports complex and
guarantee protection for grazing, mining, and hunting and scenic resources of White Pine's
South Snake Range." The release went further:
The development of national recreation under the Forest Service is a creative
and progressive way to solve the increasing demand for outdoor recreation. At
the same time, basic Western industries are guaranteed their right to develop
and use public land resources. ... My bill calls for cooperation between all
levels of government and private enterprise with none having monopoly.
I have drafted the Great Basin National Recreation Area bill so that there will
be checks and balances all along the way. This can only lead to wise use and
development under the multiple use policy and the creation of a harmonious
atmosphere for all levels of government.
Nevada Fish and Game will continue to have jurisdiction over wildlife, hunting,
trapping, and fishing. The county and State will remain in jurisdiction in civil and
criminal cases. Their right to tax will also be maintained. Under a National Park
system it would be severely impaired.
National Park Policy prohibits year-round recreation, ... but with the Recreation
bill, year-round recreation would be inevitable. A Forest Service study shows
that ski runs would be superior to those in Sun Valley, Idaho. In addition,
hunting is superb in the area.
The bill quickly received endorsement from labor unions and the Nevada Farm Bureau,
Nevada Mining Association, Central Committee of Nevada, representing stockmen in the
state, Nevada Wildlife Federation, and State Cattlemen's Association.74
73. H.R. 10084, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., July 26, 1965, 89th Congress - 1965, Baring Bill H.R. 10084, Great
Basin Recreation Area, Box 26, Baring Papers, Nevada Historical Society, Reno.
74. Press Release, "Baring Introduces National Recreation Area Bill," July 26, 1965, 89th Congress - 1965,
Baring Bill: H.R. 10084, Great Basin Recreation Area, Box 26, Baring Papers, Nevada Historical Society, Reno.
402
While the Baring bills failed to move out of committee, the idea of a national park in the
Snake Range continued to receive publicity. In a "Special Message to the Congress
Proposing Measures To Preserve America's Natural Heritage" on February 23, 1966,
President Johnson again recommended approval of the Great Basin National Park
proposal.75
During that same month the first widespread publicity was given to the destruction of a
4,900-year-old bristlecone pine tree (the oldest known living tree on earth) near Wheeler
Peak. The tree, which had been cut down and carried away by a science student assisted
by U.S. Forest Service personnel, had been selected in August 1964 because the student
considered it old enough to help date Little Ice Age phenomena. Its world-record age,
however, was not suspected until it was killed. The facts of this mistake, which placed in
question the inadequate background in bristlecone research of the student and the Forest
Service, spread through scientific circles during 1965 and reached the public in
"comprehensible form" in February 1966.
Conservation organizations reacted sharply, calling for establishment of Great Basin National
Park to afford immediate protection to the bristlecone pines near Wheeler Peak. These
groups were further alarmed because the Forest Service permitted bulldozers to tear
through bristlecone pine stands in mining claim locations in the Mount Washington area.
Thus, these organizations initiated appeals for a considerably larger national park than
recent proposed legislation had provided.76
With the demise of the three bills in 1965 the effort to create Great Basin National Park
lost momentum. In April 1966 some discussions were initiated by Park Service officials with
Secretary Udall and the Nevada congressional delegation for a 94,680-acre national park,
but the talks were generally informal and inconsequential. For nearly a decade thereafter
little activity of consequence would be undertaken, although the Park Service would keep
its endorsement of the park idea alive through two major documents.
In 1972 the Park Service published Part Two of the National Park System Plan: Natural
History, a document analyzing natural history themes and their adequacy of representation
within the system. As a region the Great Basin received an estimate of only "10 percent
adequacy of representation." At that time, the only regions in the nation that received a
lower ranking were those without any representation in the system.77
That same year the National Park Service let a contract to the Departments of Biological
Sciences and Geoscience of the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, for preparation of an
Inventory of Natural Landmarks of the Great Basin. The study was designed to inventory
and list by priority natural features with potential for nomination to the National Registry of
Natural Landmarks and recommend an area that could be added to the National Park
System as Great Basin National Park. The study recommended that Lexington Arch, the
75. "Special Message to the Congress Proposing Measures To Preserve America's Natural Heritage, February
23, 1966," Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Lyndon B. Johnson, Containing the Public
Messages, Speeches, and Statements of the President, 1966 (In Two Books), Book I - January 1, to June 30,
1966 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1967), pp. 195-203.
76. Darwin Lambert, "Over the Years With Great Basin Park," National Park Magazine, XL (June 1966), 12-
16. Further data on Forest Service research and policy relating to bristlecone pines may be found in Donald R.
Currey, "An Ancient Bristlecone Pine Stand in Eastern Nevada," Ecology, XLVI (Summer 1965), 564-66; Ely Daily
Times, September 19, 1966; and U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, The Bristlecone Pine: Nature's
Oldest Living Thing, 1 983.
77. Oulman, "Copper, Cows, and Crown Jewels: A Case Study Analyzing the Context of Debate Surrounding
Establishment of Great Basin National Park," pp. 16-18.
403
Mount Moriah Division of Humboldt National Forest, and the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area be
evaluated for registry as natural landmarks. Concerning the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area, the
inventory stated that it was "an outstanding example of scenic grandeur with many other
natural values." The geological values included the mountain system, glacier activity,
mountain streams, and caves, and the ecological values were alpine tundra, boreal and
coniferous forests, and bristlecone pine stands. Rather than select sites to represent these
values, the inventory recommended that the entire area be evaluated as a natural
landmark.78
The study suggested four potential areas for Great Basin National Park. The four areas, the
evaluation of which were forwarded to Congress in 1977, were the Snake Range, White
Mountains, Railroad Valley, and Monitor Valley.79
Local White Pine County interests continued to debate the merits of establishing Great
Basin National Park. In January 1977, for instance, the Lehman Caves superintendent's
annual report stated:
The Great Basin National Park issue is again being brought out into the open.
In December 1976, the Chamber of Commerce held a meeting at the Nevada
Hotel in Ely with all Service Clubs in attendance. The guest speaker was
Dr. Robert S. Waite of Weber State College in Utah. He completed his Doctors
Thesis on Great Basin National Park. All Ely Service Clubs, Chamber of
Commerce, and the newspaper were in support of the park. The local ranchers,
miners, and hunters opposed the park vigorously. They felt that many of
Dr. Waite's economic figures were in error and that the Chamber of Commerce
had been secretive in their efforts to gain a park. Previously Railroad Valley was
a site to be considered for a Great Basin National Park, but this summer oil
was discovered and the area is being developed for that purpose. As of this
date, I believe this proposal has been defeated, but Kennecott Copper Company
does not have many more years of operation left in Ely, Nevada and the subject
will surface again in future years.80
In 1979 a reconnaissance survey was initiated by the National Park Service under Section
8 of the General Authorities Act of 1970, as amended by Public Law 94-458, to determine
whether any of the four recommended park areas should be studied in detail. During the
early phase of the survey, three additional areas (Big Smoky Valley/Toiyabe Mountains,
Ruby Mountains, and Roberts Mountains) were recommended for study by various agencies
and individuals. When these were evaluated, the Ruby Mountains and Roberts Mountains
were determined not to satisfy Park Service criteria for a national park representing the
Great Basin. The third area, Big Smoky Valley/Toiyabe Mountains, was added to the
Monitor Valley study area. Thus, four areas were evaluated in the reconnaissance survey:
78. Inventory of Natural Landmarks of the Great Basin by Vernon B. Bossick and Wesley E. Niles, Department
of Biological Sciences, and William A. McClellan, Edward H. Oakes, John R. Wilbanks, Department of Geoscience,
The University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Compiled for the National Park Service, United States Department of the
Interior, August 20, 1975, pp. 268-69, 324-27, 532-36, 667.
79. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Reconnaissance Survey, Great Basin,
Nevada/California, January 1980, p. 1, and U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs,
Proposed Great Basin National Park, Nev., Submitted as an accompanying part of the Communication from The
Secretary of the Interior transmitting Reports on Studies of New Areas with Potential for Inclusion in the National
Park System, H. Doc. 95-264, 95th Cong., 1st Sess., 1977, pp. 1-4.
80. Superintendent's Annual Report, Lehman Caves National Monument, 1977, Vertical Files, Great Basin
National Park. Similar observations appeared in the Lehman Caves superintendent's annual report in January 1980.
Superintendent's Annual Report, Lehman Caves National Monument, 1980, Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park.
404
Snake Range/Spring Valley (811,600 acres), Railroad Valley (2,217,500 acres), Monitor/Big
Smoky Valley (2,244,960 acres), and White Mountains/Fish Lake Valley (835,651 acres).
After inventorying the resources, the four study areas were evaluated, using as a basis the
natural and cultural themes for the Great Basin contained in Part One and Part Two of the
National Park System Plan. The survey team found that all four study areas contained a
majority of the primary nineteen natural and five cultural themes. The Snake Range/Spring
Valley and Monitor/Big Smoky Valley areas included all 24 themes, while Railroad Valley
had 22 and White Mountains/Fish Lake Valley had 19. Several of the more important
themes, however, were not represented in the latter two.
Since the analysis of the Great Basin primary themes resulted in three areas with similar
representation, the study team designed a Study Area Evaluation Chart, consisting of nine
additional topics ranked in order of descending importance. Because the Snake
Range\Spring Valley unit included all 24 primary themes and ranked highest in eight of the
nine additional topics, the survey team recommended that a study of alternatives be made
of that area. Interest in further study of this area was enhanced when the federal
government began studying the advisability of locating MX missiles in the Snake Valley.81
Comments from the Nevada Division of State Parks, Bureau of Land Management, U.S.
Forest Service, and Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service were incorporated in the
final reconnaissance survey document. The results of the survey and comments received
from these agencies and the Land and Water Conservation Fund Policy Group
substantiated the recommendation that a study of alternatives be made of the Snake
Range/Spring Valley area. On December 7, 1979, a summary of the reconnaissance survey
and recommendations was submitted to the House Committee on Interior and Insular
Affairs.82
In December 1979 the National Park Service decided that the study of alternatives for the
811,600-acre Snake Range/Spring Valley area should be completed during 1980. The Park
Service, in cooperation with the Land and Water Conservation Fund Policy Group,
determined the project's scope and then requested the State of Nevada and concerned
federal agencies for assistance in the project. An interagency team was formed. Led by the
Park Service this team included the Nevada Division of State Parks, Forest Service, Bureau
of Land Management, and Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service.
The purpose of the study was to determine the feasible alternatives for protection, use, and
management of the area's resources and to assess the impacts and implications of each
alternative. Thus, the document, entitled Study of Alternatives, Great Basin, Snake
Range/Spring Valley Study Area, Nevada, would provide information to enable the
Department of the Interior to submit to Congress a recommendation as to whether or not
the area should be included in the National Park System or if other means of management
and protection should be pursued.
81. Reconnaissance Survey, January 1980, pp. 1-92. The themes considered of primary importance for the
Great Basin, as well as the nine additional topics, may be seen in Appendix CC.
82. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Proposed Great Basin National Park,
Nov., Submitted as an accompanying part of the Communication from The Secretary of the Interior Transmitting
Reports on Studies of New Areas with Potential for Inclusion in the National Park System, H. Doc. 96-12, 96th
Cong., 1st Sess., 1979. The Land and Water Conservation Fund Policy Group had been established to serve in
an advisory and interagency coordinating role with respect to the federal portion of the Land and Water Conservation
Fund. Federal agencies represented in the group were the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Land
Management, Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service, and National Park Service.
405
In July 1980 two workshops were held in Baker and Ely to provide the public with
information on the study and solicit comments and concerns. The major issues raised by
the public focused on privately-owned lands, mining, grazing, increased tourism and
resource use, local tax support base loss, additional federal regulations, and the MX missile
proposal. Two additional workshops on the draft alternatives were held in September in
Baker and Ely. The results of public participation and comments by the involved federal and
state agencies were incorporated in the final document printed in February 1981.
The study identified seven alternatives as feasible means to protect and manage the area's
significant resources, while providing educational, interpretive, and recreational opportunities.
While the alternatives differed in approach, they had five objectives in common with varying
levels of achievement. These were to:
1. Identify and protect natural, cultural, scenic, and recreational resource
values representative of the Great Basin region
2. Increase recreational, interpretive, and educational opportunities for
people to understand and appreciate the attributes of the Great Basin
environment
3. Recognize the existing Great Basin lifestyle, particularly the rich and
continuing heritage of ranching and mining
4. Balance preservation efforts with the need to maintain and enhance the
local economy's viability which is largely dependent upon use of local
resources
5. Consider the Great Basin and the Snake Range/Spring Valley area as
one overall resource which includes the natural values that are to be
preserved as well as the economic and social attributes83
By the mid-1980s the economic picture in eastern Nevada was changing. Mining was in a
prolonged depression and the grazing interests' clout was ebbing. Tourism was seen as
Nevada's new ticket to prosperity. Environmental issues were becoming increasingly popular
in Reno and Las Vegas, where the Nevada population centers and votes were located.
Thus, the stage was set for the final campaign to establish Great Basin National Park.
The final campaign commenced in 1985 in conjunction with proposed legislation to
designate national forest lands in Nevada for inclusion in the National Wilderness
Preservation System. That year four Nevada wilderness bills were introduced in the House
of Representatives. On March 20 Senators Paul Laxalt and Chic Hecht introduced S. 722
designating 136,900 acres in three new wilderness areas (Mount Charleston, Mount Moriah,
and Boundary Peak) and an addition to the existing Jarbidge Wilderness. The following day
Representative Barbara F. Vucanovich introduced a companion bill (H.R. 1686) in the
House. The stated purpose of these bills was to
designate certain National Forest System lands in Nevada for inclusion in the
National Wilderness Preservation System in order to preserve the wilderness
character of the land and to protect watersheds and wildlife habitat, preserve
scenic and historic resources, and promote scientific research, primitive
recreation, solitude, physical and mental challenge, and inspiration for the benefit
of all of the American people; and (2) insure that certain National Forest System
83. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Study of Alternatives, Great Basin, Snake
Range/Spring Valley Study Area, Nevada, February 1981, pp. 3-10, 47-59.
406
lands in the State of Nevada be made available for uses other than wilderness
in accordance with applicable national forest laws and planning procedures and
the provisions of this Act.84
A far more extensive bill was introduced by Representative Harry M. Reid of Nevada on
September 12, 1985. Reid would soon emerge as a spokesman for the state's conservation
interests in his successful bid in 1986 to win the Senate seat held by Laxalt who was
retiring. Reid's legislation (H.R. 3302) proposed nine new wilderness areas and an addition
to the Jarbidge Wilderness, totaling some 722,900 acres of forest lands for inclusion in the
National Wilderness Preservation System. The proposed areas included are Dome,
Boundary Peak, East Humboldt, Mount Moriah, Mount Rose, Ruby Mountains, South Snake,
Mount Charleston, and Table Mountain. The South Snake Wilderness would comprise some
120,000 acres.85
That same day Representatives John F. Seiberling of Ohio, Chairman of the House
Subcommittee on Public Lands, George Darden of Georgia, Peter H. Kostmayer of
Pennsylvania, and James Weaver of Oregon introduced H.R. 3304, calling for eighteen new
wilderness areas and an addition to the existing Jarbidge Wilderness totaling 1,466,500
acres in Nevada. The eighteen areas were: Alta Toquima, Arc Dome, Boundary Peak,
Currant Mountain, East Humboldts, Elk Mountain, Excelsior, Grant Range, Mount Moriah,
Mount Rose, Quinn Canyon, Ruby Mountains, Santa Rosa, Schell Peaks, South Snake,
Mount Charleston, Table Mountain, and Toiyabe Crest. The South Snake Wilderness was
to consist of 120,000 acres.86
A hearing was held by the House Subcommittee on Public Lands on all three House bills
in Washington, D.C., on October 10, 1985, with Representative Seiberling presiding. None
of the bills had any references to establishment of Great Basin National Park, but during
the hearing Representative Bruce F. Vento of Minnesota brought up the issue of national
park designation in place of wilderness designation for the South Snake Range.
During the hearing Douglas W. MacCleery, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, read
a prepared statement outlining the position of his department on the three bills. Among
other things, he observed that "current draft Forest Plans for the Toiyabe and Humboldt
National Forests support wilderness status for some of the areas" covered by the bills.
Included in the draft Forest Plan for Humboldt National Forest was the Wheeler Peak
(South Snake) Wilderness to comprise 60,151 acres (a total later changed to 61,689). With
reference to the South Snake proposal, he noted:
The South Snake (Wheeler Peak) proposal is listed in H.R. 3302, H.R. 3304,
and the draft Forest Plans. The two bills propose a much expanded area
compared to the draft Forest Plans. We recommend that the proposal for this
area be reduced in size to conform to the draft Forest Plan recommendations.
We would be pleased to work with the Committee on any questions involving
the final boundary locations.
84. H.R. 1686, in U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Additions to the National
Wilderness Preservation System, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Committee on Interior
and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-Ninth Congress, First Session, on H.R. 1686, H.R. 3302,
H.R. 3304, Nevada Wilderness Proposals, Hearing Held in Washington, D.C., October 10, 1985, Serial No. 99-
19, Part I (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1986), pp. 9-21.
85. H.R. 3302, in ibid, pp. 22-31.
86. H.R. 3304, in ibid, pp. 32-42.
407
Robert C. Horton, Director of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, also read a prepared statement at
the hearing. Among his comments on the bills was a reference to the South Snake
Wilderness proposal. He indicated "that tungsten, beryllium, precious metals, and base
metals" occurred in the area as there was "recorded production of these commodities from
six mining districts in and near the proposed wilderness." Thus, he opposed the wilderness
designation.87
Three weeks after the hearing, on October 31, 1985, the Subcommittee on Public Lands
adopted an amendment in the nature of a substitute to H.R. 3302, which was reported
favorably to the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs by voice vote. The
amendment, largely prepared by Representative Reid, became known as the Nevada
Wilderness Protection Act of 1985. Among other things, the bill provided for designation of
939,000 acres of national forest lands in Nevada as additions to the National Wilderness
Preservation System. The bill also provided for deletion of the South Snake Wilderness
designation and establishment of a 174,000-acre Great Basin National Park, the lands for
the park to be transferred from the Forest Service to the Park Service. In the proposed
park valid existing rights under the mining and mineral leasing laws and the Geothermal
Steam Act would be protected, grazing at levels permitted before July 1, 1985, would be
permitted, and a visitor center would be constructed. Private lands would be acquired only
with consent of the individual landowners.
The full House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs considered H.R. 3302 on
November 6 and approved the committee's amendment as written by Reid. On November
26, 1985, the Department of Agriculture submitted its report on the amended bill to Morris
K. Udall, Chairman of the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. Commenting
on the section pertaining to the park, Secretary John R. Block stated:
Although the Administration has not formulated a final position, we oppose the
creation of a new National Park within the context of this wilderness designation
package and recommend that Title II be deleted. We believe the creation of a
new national park is a significant change in management direction for these
Federal lands and should be subject to separate hearings and fact-finding
inquiries. Current management direction as specified in the draft Humboldt
National Forest Plan will continue to conserve and protect the area. Current and
long-range management plans for the area not only protect the area, but are
compatible with other multiple uses and resource demands.88
Notwithstanding the objections of the Department of Agriculture, the House Committee on
Interior and Insular Affairs on December 10, 1985, reported favorably on H.R. 3302 subject
to approval of the amendment in the nature of a substitute by the full House. The
committee, however, was divided in its recommendation along party lines. The Republican
minority opposed the favorable report of the Democratic majority. In very strong dissenting
language the Republicans, led by Representative Don Young, the ranking minority member
from Alaska, stated their opposition to the portion of the bill providing for establishment of
Great Basin National Park:
This wilderness bill is unique in that it also designates a new national park.
While the proposal to designate the Wheeler Park area as the Great Basin
87. Additions to the National Wilderness Preservation System, Hearing . . . October 10,
1985, pp. 1-8, 89, 173-82.
88. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Designating Certain National Forest
Lands in the State of Nevada for Inclusion in the National Wilderness Preservation System, And for Other Purposes,
H. Rept. 99-427, Part I, 99th Cong., 1st Sess., 1985, pp. 17-25.
408
National Park may well be appropriate, it deserves separate and thorough
consideration to answer the numerous remaining questions. It is not every day
that we create a national park, and we strongly feel that it should not be done
in a hasty manner nor through inclusion in a wilderness bill.
Furthermore, the only hearing held on the proposal within the last twenty years
occurred after the bill was reported from the Full Committee. To hold a hearing
on such an important issue after the fact is a perversion of the legislative
process. It is as if the hearing were held only to rubber stamp the Committee's
previous actions. Interestingly enough, the hearing emphasized the fact that
there is no consensus for a Great Basin National Park in Nevada and that
many significant issues remain unresolved.
This area is currently being wisely managed for multiple uses, including
recreation, mining, grazing and hunting, as well as protection of the resources.
Creating a national park would upset this present balance of uses and protection
which has existed for decades. Such a drastic change in management should
proceed slowly and only after thorough consideration.89
In April 1986 Nevada's three Republicans in Congress (Senators Laxalt and Hecht and
Representative Vucanovich) introduced a bill to designate only 137,000 acres of national
forest land in Nevada as wilderness. They did agree, however, to support a greatly scaled-
down 44,000-acre Great Basin National Park. In the Senate Laxalt and Hecht determined
to have the wilderness and park issues treated separately with individual bills. The
introduction of the 137,000-acre wilderness bill shifted the focus back to the House, where
the Reid wilderness bill, including the proposed park, would come up for a vote in several
weeks.90
Before H.R. 3302 (the amended version in the nature of a substitute as proposed by the
House Committee of Interior and Insular Affairs) reached the House floor, Representative
Reid introduced H.R. 4642, a compromise bill designed to gain both Republican and
Democratic support in both houses of Congress. This bill provided for designation of eleven
wilderness areas in Nevada totaling 592,000 acres and establishment of a Great Basin
National Park and Preserve. The park was to comprise 129,000 acres, while the preserve
would consist of 45,000 acres in the southern portion of the Snake Range where hunting
would be permitted. Provisions in the bill included $1,000,000 for a visitor center, park
development, and acquisition of private land within the park's boundary. The bill also
provided for release of 2,500,000 acres "of national forest lands for other uses according
to the standard release language included in other wilderness legislation" passed by
Congress.
The committee's version of H.R. 3302 and H.R. 4642 were debated extensively on the
House floor on April 30. During the debate Reid defended H.R. 4642 by noting:
Like the committee bill, my substitute amendment deletes wilderness designation
for the South Snake Range in White Pine County and instead creates the "Great
Basin National Park and Preserve."
89. Ibid, pp. 26-27.
90. Las Vegas Review Journal, April 1 6, 1 986.
409
The 200,000-square-mile area known as the Great Basin is not represented in
the National Park System. The need for this park not only continues but is
greater than it has ever been.
In addition to preserving the physical attributes of the landscape, a park would
help boost and diversify the economy of White Pine County and the rest of the
State of Nevada. Finally, the establishment of the only national park in Nevada
is more than a desert wasteland where atomic tests are conducted. There are
unique and beautiful places in the State that we are anxious to preserve,
protect, and enjoy.
Mr. Chairman, my substitute amendment recognizes the need to grant the
Snake Range special status and still allow the use of the land by those who
depend upon it. Therefore, grazing in the park/preserve may continue at historic
levels permitted before July 1, 1985.
This area also supports a good variety of wildlife including mule deer, mountain
lion, a newly established population of Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep, blue
grouse, cottontail rabbit, several furbearing animal species and a large variety
of nongame wildlife species. The area's small streams and two small alpine
lakes support a variety of trout species. Approximately 500 hunters harvest
about 170 deer annually.
My amendment designates a 45,000-acre park preserve in the southern portion
of the South Snake Range to allow hunting and fishing to continue in the
popular area to continue.
If the area is designated wilderness, the area will remain open for nonmotorized
recreational use. Grazing can also continue, as well as mining on patented or
valid claims.
Many also believe that by designating wilderness, we are destroying one of
Nevada's major industries - the mining industry. The dean of the Mackay School
of Mines at the University of Nevada at Reno, estimates that the total production
value of Nevada minerals by 1990 will average $2 billion per year. As the son
of a hardrock miner, I am well aware of the contribution of this necessary and
dynamic industry to Nevada and the Nation.
As of April 1 of this year, there were 385,045 mining claims in Nevada. In the
areas I have proposed for wilderness designation, there are 334 mining claims
- representing one-tenth of 1 percent of the total.
Within the Great Basin National Park and Preserve there are 346 mining claims
totaling 7,145 acres: 4.1 percent of the entire park and preserve.
H.R. 4642 also restates the provisions of the Wilderness Act of 1964,
emphasizing the neutrality of the act on the applicability of State water laws.
The creation of "buffer zones" around wilderness areas is expressly prohibited
under H.R. 4642.
Nevadans are very independent and fiercely protective of these lands. The
public is denied access to a large portion of that land, totaling more than 3.5
million acres, which has been reserved primarily for military bases, bombing and
gunnery ranges, and nuclear testing activities. My moderate proposal to set
410
aside 592,000 acres of wilderness and 174,000 acres for the Great Basin
National Park for the future is a wise and prudent step.
Mr. Chairman, I can tell you also that the vast majority of Nevadans are in favor
of preserving these special wild lands for future generations. A recent statewide
telephone survey of 2000 randomly selected Nevadans from every county and
virtually every community in the State indicates that 74 percent favor setting
aside wilderness areas, and 84 percent favor the establishment of the Great
Basin National Park.
Another important factor must be considered. These lands are currently in
"administrative limbo." By adopting my substitute, 2.5 million acres - or 3 out
of every 4 acres - of potential national forest wilderness lands in Nevada are
released for development and other uses.
The Reid bill was supported by numerous organizations, newspapers, and politicians in the
State of Nevada, including the National Wildlife Federation, Sierra Club, Wilderness Society,
National Audubon Society, Governor Richard Bryan, Reno Gazette-Journal, Las Vegas
Review-Journal, Las Vegas Sun, Carson City Appeal, and League of Women Voters.
During the lengthy debate Representative Vucanovich offered an amendment deleting the
entire section of H.R. 4642 relating to the park and preserve. Representing the views of
Free Enterprise Associates, an Ely-based group of mining, ranching, and hunting interests
that was fighting reduction in the existing multiple-use management of the Snake Range by
the Forest Service, she stated that the bill placed "debilitating restrictions on Nevadans"
who were "tied to the multiple use of the land." The bill, moreover, would deny access for
hunting and fishing and have a "crippling" effect on mining and the state's economy. While
she did not oppose a national park, Vucanovich wanted a separate piece of legislation for
its establishment.
The Reid bill was defeated in the House by a vote of 151-247 on April 30. Then the House
substituted language in H.R. 4642 for language in H.R. 3302 and passed the revised 3302
bill and sent it to the Senate.91
On May 21, 1986, Senators Laxalt and Hecht introduced S. 2506 providing for a scaled-
down 44,000-acre Great Basin National Park. The bill was designed to protect the mining
and ranching interests in the area. Under this bill mining and grazing would be continued
in the park area and the federal government was denied any implied water rights. At the
same time the two Senators refused to have changes made to their earlier bill providing
for only 137,000 acres of wilderness.92
During the next several months the debate over the Reid and Laxalt-Hecht bills intensified.
In mid-June Secretary of the Interior Donald Hodel announced his opposition to the Reid
bill. The department, according to Hodel, could not "afford another park on its current
budget, adding that a more thorough analysis of the proposal's implications" was needed.
He warned that national parks do not become tourist attractions without adequate facilities
91. Congressional Record- House, April 30, 1986, 99th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 132, No. 56, H 2251-2273.
92. Ely Daily Times, May 22, 1986, and U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources,
Establishing the Great Basin National Park and Miscellaneous Boundary Adjustments in the National Park System,
Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Public Lands, Reserved Water and Resource Conservation of the Committee
on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, Ninety-Ninth Congress, Second Session, On ... S. 2506,
A Bill to Establish a Great Basin National Park in the State of Nevada, and for other purposes . . . July 18, 1986
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1987), pp. 5-9.
411
such as roaas, campgrounds, and restrooms. Hodel observed that there were no funds to
provide such facilities and adequate staffing and land acquisition. Thus, the new park would
become "a drain on the national park budget."93
Representative Reid sharply criticized Hodel, arguing that the secretary's position reflected
"the arrogant view of administration bureaucrats that Nevada is nothing more than a federal
colony." He stated that the attitude of the administration appeared "to be that Nevada is
good enough for a nuclear dump and for bombing ranges but we're not good enough for
a National Park."94
The Subcommittee on Public Lands, Reserved Water and Resource Conservation of the
Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources held a hearing on S. 2506 on July
18, 1986.95 In a prepared statement, Senator Hecht, who presided at the hearing,
observed:
The Great Basin is one of the few major geographic and geologic regions in our
country that is not yet represented in the National Park System. Lawmakers and
the conservation community have been aware of this oversight since 1924, when
Senator Key Pittman of Nevada introduced the first national park bill for the
area.
The area to become a national park through S. 2506 has already been
recognized by the Federal Government as having much to commend it for
preservation in the national interest.
The bill which Senator Laxalt and I introduced contains all the key natural
features which should be included in a Great Basin National Park. It also
reduces potential conflicts with the traditional industries of White Pine County,
ranching and mining. For instance, while the House bill contains 828 valid
unpatented mining claims, the Senate bill only contains an estimated 200 such
claims. The House bill says grazing may continue in the park. The Senate bill
says it shall continue as before, and allows a rancher to try to exchange grazing
allotments inside the park for any that might become available outside the park.
To minimize the costs to the taxpayers of creating a new park, I have
deliberately excluded all private inholdings from the park boundaries. The Senate
park proposal would therefore require little or no money for land acquisition. In
contrast, the House bill puts valuable private lands into that park.
Some of the visitor facilities needed for a park already exist. There is therefore
little need to spend a lot of money on park development. I believe this area of
Nevada is a truly beautiful example of the mountain ranges which typify the
Great Basin, and will make a great contribution to our country's National Park
System.
Senator Laxalt submitted a prepared statement that was incorporated into the hearing
document. In his comments Laxalt stressed the need for a smaller park than provided by
the Reid bill to protect traditional mining and ranching interests:
93. Ely Daily Times, June 13, 1986.
94. Reno Gazette Journal, June 14, 1986.
95. Earlier on February 10-14, 1986, the subcommittee held a series of hearings on S. 722 in Ely, Elko,
Winnemucca, Las Vegas, and Reno.
412
This area of the State has been important to Nevada and the nation for its
mineral wealth and production of food and fiber for many years. It is important
that those industries not be compromised by the Park addition and I believe that
goal is possible. Our Park proposal has been carefully crafted to permit the
continued viability of those industries side by side with the Park, continuing the
policy of multiple use of our varied resources. Our proposed 44,000 acre Park
includes all the important features of the range and permits their interpretive
showcasing while avoiding undue disruption of traditional mining and livestock
activities. Such activities are, after all, of historical worth, as well as of economic
benefit, and are as worthy of preservation in their own right as are scenic
features of the proposed Park. I want to make clear that it is my intention, as
a cosponsor of this Park legislation, to protect and preserve traditional mining
and grazing activities within the remaining forest unit. There is simply no reason
to restrict such activities outside the Park boundaries.
In that respect our bill differs from the park proposal already passed this year
by the House of Representatives. That measure includes much more area with
a resulting increased impact on historic economic activities. Moreover that bill
converts the whole South Snake forest unit to Park Service management, a
move I oppose. The Forest Service has well served the unit in the past and
should, I believe, continue to manage the unit, the bulk of which will remain
forest under our proposal. I do hope, Mr. Chairman, that we may convince our
House colleagues of the strengths of the Park, as proposed in S. 2506.
I want to stress again that my support for the Park is based on the merits of
the characteristics of the area. It is truly a magnificent representative of a vast
area of our nation called the Great Basin and should be developed as a
showcase and interpretive center for all our citizens. It is more than just a pretty
place, although it certainly qualifies as a pretty place. To the extent it may bring
some economic stimulus to White Pine County in Nevada, I will applaud that
result as it is sorely needed there.
Secretary Hodel appeared at the hearing to support the bill.96 His personal statement
included the following comments and observations:
I would like to personally commend the two Senators from Nevada for preparing
a balanced proposal, one that provides for protection of the natural resources
that make up the Great Basin region while at the same time is sensitive to the
needs of the people who have traditionally used the area. Your proposed
boundary has been carefully drawn to include spectacular resources while
excluding patented mining claims and the wintering range of the mule deer. This
should help reduce the cost of this national park, and makes it acceptable to
this Administration, unlike other proposals put forward which we could not
support.
Further, I would note that this park, upon enactment of S. 2506, could begin
operation immediately. Existing funding, personnel, and facilities at Lehman
Caves National Monument are already located within the proposed park
boundary, and can form the nucleus of services for the new park. Immediately
available to the park visitors, therefore, would be an existing visitor center and
office building complex, a small gift shop and coffee shop, a cave trail, a 30-
96. Hodel's sudden change of heart on the park issue has been credited to Laxalt's lobbying of the
administration and his long-time friend President Ronald W. Reagan.
413
site picnic area, rest room facilities, and a water system. Further, as a result of
the transfer of land from the Forest Service, there would also be available to
visitors two primitive campgrounds, a trailer campground with 11 developed
sites, three other campgrounds with a total of 81 developed sites, and rest room
facilities. With this infrastructure in place, plus the fact that the area proposed
by S. 2506 is already Federally-managed, we believe that the new national park
can be established without significant increased cost to the taxpayer.
Hodel also addressed three other issues in his testimony. These were the authorization for
further development, the authorization for land acquisition, and grazing. He observed:
As I mentioned, this park already contains limited visitor facilities. Uses in the
area of the new park should, therefore, remain essentially the same as now. We
would nevertheless propose to prepare a general management plan, which
includes public involvement, to help guide the future management of this
national park and to identify any desired or needed future facilities. The close
working relationship between the staff of this new national park and the adjacent
communities will certainly be vital to a successful operation. It is important to
me that we be candid in advising you, the Congress, and the communities,
however, that it is unlikely that the National Park Service will be in a position
to fund additional facilities for the foreseeable future. Support for this new park
should be founded on the propriety and suitability of this area as a park and not
on the basis of unredeemable promises of increased tourism and facilities.
With regard to land acquisition, it is my understanding that there is no private
ownership of the surface estate inside of the proposed boundary. There may be
valid mining claims, however, which constitute an interest in land. I believe we
should proceed with the development of a land protection plan that will identify
all valid interests in these lands. The land protection planning process, of
course, will also involve the public. We will seek a consensus regarding the
appropriate level of protection, and what, if any, interests in lands must be
acquired.
With regard to the issue of grazing, Mr. Chairman, I understand there are a total
of seven different grazing allotments within the entire 174,000-acre South Snake
Range Unit of the Humboldt National Forest. Within all seven allotments, there
are six cattle permits totaling 571 head of cattle, or 2,583 animal unit months
(AUM's), and there are two sheep permits totaling 2,437 sheep, or 1,843
AUM's. Portions of six of these allotments are within the 44,000-acre proposed
park boundary.
The Department of Agriculture was represented at the hearing by George S. Dunlop,
Assistant Secretary for Natural Resources and Environment. He voiced the continuing
reservations of his department toward any national park proposal but conceded that if a
park were established the Laxalt-Hecht bill was preferable. Among other things, Dunlop
stated:
Our reservations about the bill, S. 2506, stem from our longstanding commitment
to the concept of balanced multiple use of our natural resources. There is no
doubt that the area encompassed by S. 2506 has many outstanding scenic and
natural features, and there is no question that these features should be
managed to protect and enhance those values. It is simply our earnest opinion
that the current management under the Forest Service provides for such
protection.
414
Our concern is that passage of S. 2506 could reduce or foreclose management
of the area for a number of other multiple uses currently being carried out in
ways that do not detract from protecting and enhancing the natural and scenic
value of the area. Examples, and they have been mentioned by previous
witnesses, are hunting, livestock grazing, fuel-wood gathering, and similar
activities.
I might say that we are also concerned that when an area is designated as a
national park, as Secretary Hodel indicated, there does develop from many
quarters sentiment to increase the size of the park, or to place other use
restrictions on adjacent land. We would strongly oppose any such expansion.
With regard to the park proposal, I should say that we feel there are other
management options which would be available which would protect the scenic
values of the area and allow increased recreational use and retain the existing
multiple use opportunities that I have identified. An example would be the
designation of the area as a national recreation area administered by the Forest
Service.
This could provide for national recognition and visibility to the scenic and
recreational attributes of the area without the limitations on multiple use that
would be associated with park status. For example, hunting would be permitted
in a national recreation area. Grazing and mineral activities could be permitted
if such specific activities were consistent with and did not detract from the
primary purposes for which the recreation area was established.
Perhaps of most immediate concern to the folks that are living and working out
there now is that there are 1065 animal-use-months of livestock grazing within
the proposed park area. The bill allows grazing to continue subject to certain
limitations and conditions or regulations as may be prescribed by the Secretary
of the Interior.
As currently written the bill provides that the Secretary of Agriculture would
negotiate an exchange with holders of valid existing grazing permits on land
within the proposed park for an equal number of animal-unit-months on land
elsewhere within the Humboldt National Forest.
Mr. Chairman, very frankly this provision that is in the bill is not practical, simply
because grazing capacity on the South Snake Division is completely and fully
obligated. There is little opportunity for range improvement that could increase
the livestock carrying capacity outside of the proposed boundaries.
So for this reason it is our very earnest recommendation that the issue of
grazing allotments be specifically provided for in the statute, and we hope that
the committee could do that. We would be very pleased to work with you to
help bring that about.97
The endorsement of the Laxalt-Hecht bill by Secretary Hodel was warmly applauded by
various regional newspapers. The Deseret News, for instance, printed an editorial on August
9, 1986, stating:
97. Establishing the Great Basin National Park and Miscellaneous Boundary Adjustments in the National Park
System, Hearing, July 18, 1986, pp. 1-2, 14-15, 20-30.
415
Because of the persistently stubborn federal deficit, the Reagan administration
has been notably reluctant to expand the National Park System.
So it's encouraging to see that this reluctance has been overcome to a limited
extent with Interior Secretary Donald Hodel's endorsement of a bill to create a
Great Basin National Park in eastern Nevada.
This breakthrough is welcome for more reasons than just the fact that the bill
would create a national park in the only western state without any such parks.
More important, a new national park could help take some of the pressure off
other national parks, which are in danger of being loved to death. Since 1950,
visits to America's national parks have increased from 33 million a year to more
than 327 million. As a result of this pressure and budget restrictions, roads,
campgrounds, and other facilities in the parks have been deteriorating.
But then national parks don't automatically attract visitors. For that to happen,
new parks require new campgrounds and continuing upkeep. So the less
ambitious Laxalt-Hecht bill, with its more limited expenditures, should be easier
to sell to the Senate than the House bill. Moreover, it provides a base point for
negotiations in a congressional conference committee to resolve differences
between the House and Senate measures. If a small park is created now, it
could be expanded later when circumstances are more favorable.98
After consideration of S. 2506 the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources
recommended passage of the bill on September 19, subject to an amendment in the nature
of a substitute. The amendment added a standard provision on the legal description of the
park and abolished Lehman Caves National Monument, its lands to be incorporated in the
proposed park. Available monument funds would be transferred to the park. The substitute
provided that establishment of the park did not create any new reservation of water or
water rights and clarified that whatever water rights the United States had on the proposed
park lands prior to establishment of the park would be retained and that any appropriation
of water would be made under Nevada state law. The amendment authorized the Secretary
of the Interior to enter into cooperative agreements with other groups and agencies to
provide for the interpretation of the Great Basin physiographic region. Finally, the
authorization for appropriation was modified to authorize $800,000 for development and
$200,000 for land acquisition."
On September 30, 1986, S. 2506, as amended by the committee, was considered on the
Senate floor. The bill passed with little debate and only some minor discussion on its
grazing provisions.100
Thus, there were two park bills that had been passed by the two houses in Congress. The
Reid bill provided for a 129,000-acre park and 45,000-acre preserve, and the Laxalt-Hecht
bill provided for a 44,000-acre park.
98. Deseret News, August 9, 1986. Similar sentiments were expressed in a Los Angeles Times editorial on
August 5, 1986.
99. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Establishing the Great Basin
National Park in the State of Nevada, S. Rept. 99-458, 99th Cong. 2d Sess. 1986.
100. Congressional Record- Senate, September 30, 1986, 99th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 132, No. 132, S 14344-
14345, and Congressional Record - Senate, October 1, 1986, 99th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 132, No. 133, S 14384.
416
When S. 2506 was sent to the House Representative Bruce F. Vento, Chairman of the
House Subcommittee on National Parks, undertook to negotiate a compromise on the size
of the park. In discussions with Representatives Reid and Vucanovich, it was agreed that
the proposed park should comprise approximately 76,000 acres. Thus, S. 2506, as
amended, reached the House floor on October 6. In presenting this compromise to the
House, Vento noted:
Mr. Speaker, the House passed H.R. 3302 on April 30, 1986, which contained
a designation of a 174,000 acre Great Basin National Park and Preserve. The
boundary of this park was drawn to incorporate 16 to 25 of the primary features
found throughout the Great Basin region.
Any proposal for a national park should be considered within the context of
features that are a sufficient quality to be included within a national park. The
elimination of such features from the park area reduce its viability as a national
park in direct relation to the number of features being eliminated. I believe the
original House proposal to have been an excellent one, properly incorporating
the features of the great basin physiographic region and establishing boundaries
that were both manageable and so drawn to include only a minimum of private
land. Out of 174,000 acres all the land is federally owned except 915 acres.
However, the other body chose to send us a new bill, S. 2506. S. 2506 calls
for a 44,000-acre national park which in my view reduced the number and
quality of features within the boundary to the extent that national park
designation would no longer have been possible.
I have been working with Congresswoman Vucanovich and Congressman Reid
in an attempt to achieve some reasonable compromise on a boundary for the
Great Basin National Park, and I'm pleased to report to this House and
Members that I believe we have now achieved the goal of agreeing on a
smaller park that, while not ideal, reflects most of the features that are integral
to the Great Basin area.
The proposed Great Basin National Park would include about 76,000 acres of
Forest Service administered land in the Humboldt National Forest known as the
South Snake Range and would incorporate Lehman Caves National Monument,
located on Wheeler Peak in the South Snake Range.
I would prefer to designate a larger Great Basin National Park. However, 60
years is far too long for us to debate the merits of this important addition to the
National Park System and I am pleased that we have been able to agree to a
compromise that will finally allow for the establishment of a national park that
the people of Nevada and the Nation can take pride in.
The House passed S. 2506, as amended, and sent the revised bill to the Senate.
101
The amended S. 2506 providing for a 76,000-acre park reached the Senate floor on
October 9. There Senator Hecht remarked on the bill:
101. Congressional Record - House; October 6, 1986, 99th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 132, No. 136, H 9189-H
9193. Vento placed extended remarks on the water rights issue in the Congressional Record on October 17.
Congressional Record - Extensions of Remarks, October 17, 1986, 99th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 132, No. 144, E
3771 -E 3772.
417
When the Senate passed S. 2506 a few weeks ago, I was confident that we
had done an excellent job designing a park that took in the most impressive
features of the Snake Range, while still protecting the mainstays of the local
economy: mining and ranching. Another very important provision in the Senate-
passed bill involved language protecting water rights in Nevada. Finally, the
boundaries of the bill excluded private land from the 44,000-acre park. Everyone
who has a national park in their State understands the complex, chronic, and
emotionally charged problems that almost always occur when private land is
put inside a national park.
One of the main reasons I introduced a modest 44,000-acre bill was simply
because I expected the Senate would have to give some ground on the grazing
issue, and a bill affecting a small number of acres would also limit any damage
that would result from the House weakening our Senate language on grazing.
I was pleased to see that the House's only change to the Senate bill was in the
acreage involved. I was only presently surprised to see that even with the larger
acreage, the House was willing to keep private land outside of the park, and
accept the Senate language with regard to water rights and grazing.
With the Senate language left intact, I feel comfortable agreeing to the House
amendment to my bill, which expands the Senate bill to 76,800 acres.
Mr. President, this legislation will add a new crown jewel to our Nation's
National Park System. It will give Nevada its first national park. It will protect
forever a beautiful piece of our Nation, and it will also protect the rights and
way of life of the good citizens of White Pine County, NV.
Without further discussion or debate the Senate concurred in the House amendments
102
The act establishing Great Basin National park was signed into law by President Ronald
W. Reagan on October 27, 1986. The purpose of the park, according to Section 2 of the
act, was "to preserve for the benefit and inspiration of the people a representative segment
of the Great Basin of the Western United States possessing outstanding resources and
significant geological and scenic values." Thus, the park, consisting of approximately 76,000
acres (detailed mapping and review of the land included within the boundaries which were
part of the final bill showed that the actual acreage was 76,469.15), became the nation's
49th national park and the first such area outside of Alaska to be added to the National
Park System in fifteen years.103
Announcement of the establishment of Great Basin National Park was greeted with a
variety of opinions. Nevada Governor Richard Bryan hailed the park, saying it "sends a
powerful message that Nevada is not just a wasteland or a dump site" but instead has
areas "that are very beautiful and should be preserved and enjoyed." While he didn't think
the park would generate the volume of tourists of Yosemite or Yellowstone, there would "be
more traffic and the state will benefit enormously just from the association - just from being
part of the national park system." He predicted that the park would be a boon to the
eastern Nevada economy.
102. Congressional Record - Senate, October 9, 1986, 99th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 132, No. 139, S 15801-
15802.
103. Public Law 99-565 (100 Stat. 3181). A copy of the act may be seen in Appendix DD. For an analysis of
the political considerations that contributed to the final compromise legislation, see Oulman, "Copper, Cows, and
Crown Jewels," pp. 110-27.
418
Representative Reid issued a statement noting that the park would be "a giant step forward
in unraveling the false image held by some that Nevada is little more than an arid
wasteland." Besides "diversifying our economy, the park will stand as a monument to
Nevada's scenic heritage."
Ferrel Hansen, executive vice president of the White Pine County Chamber of Commerce,
was "ecstatic" over the park's establishment. According to Hansen, it would help the county
economy that had been depressed since Kennecott closed a major copper mining operation
at Ruth during the late 1970s. While the park's impact would not be felt right away, it would
make the county "a destination tourist area rather than a pass-through area" in several
years.
Other opinions were less sanguine. Speaking for herself and Senators Laxalt and Hecht,
Representative Vucanovich said the park's final size was "a compromise everyone can live
with." Some miners and ranchers near the park worried that the park would interfere with
their livelihoods. Residents of Baker were concerned that a major influx of tourists might
disrupt their lifestyle.104
During the past two years Great Basin National Park has received increasing attention from
newspapers and periodicals across the nation. One of the most profound descriptions of the
park and the impact of its resources was printed in the November 1987 issue of the
Smithsonian:
If Yellowstone and Yosemite are diamonds in the nation's diadem of parks,
Great Basin Park is perhaps more like a piece of turquoise. With the exception
of Lehman Caves, a cavern whose intricate and beautiful decorations qualify it
as a natural marvel by any standard, the park does not so much overpower a
visitor, the way the Grand Canyon does, as creep up on him. The bristlecones,
the deceptively high peaks (topped by 13,063-foot Wheeler Peak, Nevada's
second highest), the steep-walled glacial lakes and narrow canyons command
an appreciation that only gradually - but steadily - shades into awe.
The park's appeal has to do with silence and space, with the grand lonesome
sweep of the country itself, with long vistas and clear air and sudden winds that
roar like a locomotive and secret meadows jammed with wildf lowers.105
104. Las Vegas Review Journal, October 29, 1986.
105. Donald Dale Jackson, "The Great Basin Is a Lonely Place for a National Park," Smithsonian, XVIII
(November 1987), 73-74.
419
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
DESCRIPTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT AND
INTERPRETATION OF HISTORIC SITES
INTRODUCTION
There are 26 extant historic sites within Great Basin National Park. After surveying,
examining, and photographing the 26 sites, it was determined by the author of this study
that all but five did not meet the necessary standards of significance and integrity for listing
on the National Register of Historic Places. This evaluation was based on the National
Register standards as outlined in the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation's procedures
in 36 CFR 800. Three sites, the Lehman Orchard, Lehman Aqueduct, and Rhodes Cabin
were entered on the National Register in 1975. This study recommends that the Osceola
(East) Ditch be placed on the National Register. Since the Stella Lake Rock Dam was
constructed as part of the ditch system, it is recommended that the rock dam be nominated
to the National Register as a contributing resource on the ditch nomination form.
With several exceptions that will be noted in this chapter, most of the other 21 historic sites
are recommended for "natural deterioration," meaning that no effort would be made to
maintain them. The effects of natural deterioration should be carefully assessed, and all
reasonable measures should be taken to minimize danger to park visitors and avoid
adverse effects to the sites. It is also recommended that "clean up" operations be
conducted at several sites. Before any sites are allowed to deteriorate or clean up
operations are commenced, however, a National Park Service archeologist and the curator
in the Western Regional Office should inspect and evaluate their "potential to yield scientific
data" for significance under Criterion D of the National Register. For further information on
the historic archeological significance of some of these sites, one should consult the draft
Archeoloqical Survey and Site Assessment at Great Basin National Park, prepared by
Susan J. Wells of the Western Archeological and Conservation Center in 1989.
A separate section of this chapter concerns four mines/mining-related sites outside but near
the park boundaries. The mines (Hub, Mount Wheeler, St. Lawrence) are the most
significant mines in the vicinity of the park in terms of their historic production and extant
remains as well as the historical documentation available on their discovery, development,
and operation.
To date approximately 2 percent of the park has been surveyed systematically to
professional standards for cultural resources. Thus, a comprehensive parkwide inventory
and survey of cultural resources is needed to identify such sites and evaluate their
contextual significance and interpretive value.
HISTORIC SITES WITHIN PARK
Lehman Orchard (1)
The Lehman Orchard, located just below the lower parking lot at the Great Basin National
Park Visitor Center, was entered on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. Begun
during the 1880s by Absalom S. Lehman, the discoverer and early developer of Lehman
Caves, the orchard is significant because it is representative of early agricultural and
horticultural development in Snake Valley and has historic association with Lehman. The
historic orchard, which included some 40 trees and covered more than 7 acres by the early
1930s, presently consists of seven apricot trees and one peach tree.
421
Views of Lehman Orchard
422
Views of Lehman Orchard
423
It is recommended that the orchard be preserved and interpreted in compliance with the
1986 Orchard Management Plan prepared by park personnel.
Lehman Aqueduct (2)
The Lehman Aqueduct was entered on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.
Constructed by Lehman during the 1880s the original aqueduct was an irrigation ditch and
flume that extended southeast some two miles from Lehman Creek near the present Lower
Lehman Campground to the Lehman Orchard. The aqueduct is significant because it is
representative of early agricultural irrigation efforts in Snake Valley and has historic
association with Lehman. Portions of the aqueduct have been reconstructed, given other
preservation/stabilization treatment, and interpreted, while some parts of the resource have
been obliterated (lower end in parking lot area) by recent Park Service development
projects. Approximately three-fourths of the original aqueduct is still visible. It is
recommended that such stabilization/preservation and interpretation activities be continued
but that no further reconstruction or restoration be undertaken.
Reconstructed Lehman Aqueduct Flume
424
Remnant Portions of Lehman Aqueduct Ditch
425
Remnant Portions of Lehman Aqueduct Ditch
426
Rhodes Cabin (3)
Constructed in the 1920s to provide accommodations for visitors to Lehman Caves National
Monument, the Rhodes Cabin is located adjacent to the north side of the Great Basin
National Park Visitor Center and is currently being used for the display of interpretive
exhibits. One of several log cabins built to provide accommodations for visitors to Lehman
Caves National Monument, the cabin has been moved from its original location, restored,
and placed on a concrete foundation. Named for Clarence and Beatrice Rhodes, who were
Forest Service custodians of Lehman Caves during the 1920s, the cabin is 19 feet long
and 1 1 feet wide with a front door, a side door, and four windows. The logs, originally
chinked with mud and concrete, are now chinked with cement made to simulate mud. The
original roof was plank and sod supported by log beams, and the original floor was dirt.
Although its integrity has been compromised, the cabin was placed on the National Register
of Historic Places in 1975 because of its association with the early tourist industry at
Lehman Caves. It is recommended that appropriate preservation treatment be given the
cabin on a continuing basis and that the structure continue to house interpretive exhibits.
Rhodes Cabin
427
Rhodes Cabin
428
Wheeler Peak Triangulation Station (4)
The Wheeler Peak triangulation station site on the mountain summit consists of several
remnant rock foundations for the original U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey structures built
during the late 1870s and early 1880s. The station was used to make observations during
the 2,500-mile geodetic arc of triangulation between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts along
the 39th parallel of latitude, the first large land-scale trigonometrical survey of the nation.
The outline of a large rock structure at the summit of Wheeler Peak measures
approximately 26-1/4 feet by 16-1/2 feet. Two to four courses of stone remain along the
east and north sides of the original structure, leaving a rectangular platform. In addition,
there are two small rectangular stone foundations approximately 3-1/4 feet high that may
have been used for the station operations. Stone from the large structure apparently has
been borrowed to build two round hiker's shelters. Two tall cairns and two benchmarks
of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey are also located on the summit. Because the site's
integrity has been compromised and a better example of such a station is located at Cedar
Spur in White Pine County, it was determined that this site lacks sufficient significance and
integrity to be placed on the National Register. The site is recommended for natural
deterioration and interpretation in the park visitor center or via a park pamphlet.
429
Osceola (East) Ditch (5)
The Osceola (East) Ditch, as originally built in 1889-90, extended some eighteen miles on
its north-northwesterly course, carrying water for hydraulic placer mining operations at
nearby Osceola on the west side of the Snake Range. Including wooden flumes and a
600-foot tunnel north of Strawberry Creek, the ditch incorporated water from Burnt Mill
Canyon, Mill, Strawberry, Lehman, and Sage creeks, and two branches of Weaver Creek.
Some ten miles of this ditch are located in Great Basin National Park. Although abandoned
for more than eighty years, the ditch can be followed for most of its length, and the flumes
and some other components of the ditch can be recognized despite their collapsed and
deteriorating condition. Remnants of stone foundations or rock alignments may be seen
along the ditch in Burnt Mill Canyon.
It is recommended that the ditch be nominated to the National Register of Historic Places
(a draft nomination form is included in this study) under Criterion C as having local
significance. The present trail from the Wheeler Peak Scenic Road to the ditch should be
developed as an interpretive trail. At the end of the trail a portion of the deteriorated
wooden flume should be reconstructed and a limited portion of the ditch rewatered. This
area should be the primary focus for interpretation of the ditch.
Present State of Site of Osceola (East) Ditch to be Interpreted
430
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Present State of Site of Osceola (East) Ditch to be Interpreted
431
Stone Foundations Near Osceola (East) Ditch
432
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Absalom Lehman Standing on Osceola Ditch
Flume Supports in Lehman Canyon, ca. 1890
433
Absalom Lehman Standing in Osceola Ditch Excavation, ca. 1890
434
The 600-foot tunnel, one of the most significant. engineering features of the Osceola (East)
Ditch, is located near the northern boundary of the park in Strawberry Creek Canyon. It is
recommended that stabilization/preservation treatment be accorded the open west-facing
tunnel portal. It is also recommended that an interpretive trail be constructed at the tunnel
site to interpret the historical and engineering significance of the ditch and that measures
be taken to prevent visitors from entering the west-facing tunnel adit. Aside from the
aforementioned preservation treatment and interpretation recommendations, other portions
of the Osceola (East) Ditch are recommended for natural deterioration.
435
West Tunnel Adit
436
Osceola (East) Ditch in Strawberry Creek Canyon Near Tunnel
437
Stella Lake Rock Dam (6)
The Stella Lake Rock Dam was constructed in 1889-90 as part of the Osceola (East) Ditch.
The rock and earthen dam with a masonry headgate was built at the outlet at the north
end of Stella Lake to increase the lake's storage capacity and the summer flow of Lehman
Creek, thus providing additional water for the ditch during the dry summer seasons. A
second dam has been built north of the historic-period dam. A hiking trail crosses the
second dam.
It is recommended that the historic rock dam be nominated to the National Register of
Historic Places as a contributing resource to the Osceola (East) Ditch nomination under
Criterion C. The rock dam should be accorded appropriate stabilization/preservation
treatment and on-site interpretation.
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Stella Lake Rock Dam
438
Stella Lake Rock Dam
439
Baker Lake Cabin (Peter Dieshman Cabin) (7)
The Baker Lake Cabin (sometimes referred to as the Peter Dieshman Cabin), located along
the Baker Lake Trail about 1-1/4 miles below the lake, is a standing log structure on a
simple stone foundation with a partially collapsed sod roof. The cabin, according to area
tradition, was likely used by Dieshman, an early twentieth-century mining prospector in the
area. The logs are chinked with shaved logs and sod, and the door and window frames
consist of hand-shaped boards. A double-walled stovepipe passes through the roof.
Because the site's history cannot be documented and its significance cannot be assessed,
it does not meet National Register standards for eligibility under Criterion C. The cabin is
recommended for natural deterioration, although appropriate measures should be taken to
insure visitor safety. The cabin presents an opportunity for interpretation at the visitor
center or via a park pamphlet.
440
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Baker Lake Cabin
441
Tilford Spring Cabin (8)
The Tilford Spring Cabin, located about 3/4 mile northwest of the Bonita Mine on the north
side of the Snake Creek Road, is a partially collapsed, dry masonry, stone cabin built into
the hillside with a rusting, deteriorated corrugated metal roof. Adjacent to the cabin on the
west are a large berm and two large pits with rusting mining debris. The cabin was likely
used by early 20th century mining prospectors. Across the road in front of the cabin is a
dry masonry rock wall and concrete slab, indicating more recent mining activity at the site.
In the vicinity are a stone-lined privy or storage cisterns, two tent platforms, and a wooden
privy. Because the site lacks known historical documentation to assess its significance and
its historic integrity has been compromised by recent activity, it does not meet National
Register standards for eligibility under Criterion C. The cabin is recommended for natural
deterioration with no visitor access or interpretation provided.
Tilford Spring Cabin
442
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Tilford Spring Cabin
443
Shoshone Trail (9)
The Shoshone Trail, constructed by the U.S. Forest Service during the 1920s, extends from
the upper Snake Creek drainage near the Johnson Lake trailhead to the North Fork of Big
Wash with connections further south to Lincoln Spring and Murphy Wash. The trail was
constructed to facilitate grazing management concerns, and the U.S. Forest Service later
incorporated it into its national forest hiking trail system. The trail lacks significance under
Criterion C of the National Register, and thus it is recommended that the trail be evaluated
as part of the park backcountry trails plan.
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Shoshone Trail Sign Near Johnson Lake Trailhead
444
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Shoshone Trail
445
Johnson Mill (10)
Named for Alfred Johnson, the Johnson Mill site, located on both sides of the Johnson
Lake Trail about 3/4 mile below the lake, consists of a partially collapsed two-story log mill
that is in a state of serious deterioration and a partially collapsed log structure/stable with
attached corral, which probably date from the period between the 1910s and the early
1930s. A recent deteriorating lean-to with corrugated metal roof is nearby. A built-up area
at the western edge of the site may have been a loading or tent platform. The building's
condition and its lack of distinctive or distinguishable architectural characteristics do not
meet the National Register standards for significance under Criterion C. Thus, the site is
recommended for natural deterioration, consistent with measures to insure visitor safety.
The nonhistone refuse scatter left by hikers at the site should be removed, but the historic
mining artifacts should be left in place. The site provides an opportunity for interpretation
at the visitor center or via a park pamphlet.
446
Johnson
447
Log Structure/Corral Near Johnson Mill
Lean-to Near Johnson Mill
448
Johnson Mine (11-11A-11B)
The Johnson Mine at Johnson Lake, a tungsten producer developed by Alfred Johnson
during the 1910s to early 1930s, consists of three components. The relatively inaccessible
site at an elevation above 10,000 feet consists of four standing but partially collapsed log
structures that served as the mining camp, a trash dump, a metal water pipe southeast of
the lake (11), an aerial cable-way in place and a demolished cable-way terminal structure
overlooking the lake (11A), and an unstable main adit and a partially collapsed open stope
on the mountainside high above the lake (1 1 B). Various test pits dot the landscape in the
vicinity of the lake, and the remnants of a rock dam, probably constructed to insure a
reliable flow of water to the Johnson Mill, lie at the southeast end of the lake.
Considerable amounts of refuse scatter, lumber, logs, and deteriorating mining machinery
remnants are scattered throughout the area. The deteriorating condition of the structures
and their lack of distinctive or distinguishable architectural components do not meet the
National Register standards for significance or integrity under Criterion C. Thus, the site
is recommended for natural deterioration, consistent with measures to be undertaken to
insure visitor safety. The nonhistone refuse scatter should be removed, but the historic
mining artifacts and machinery should be left in place. The mine presents an opportunity
for interpretation at the visitor center or via a park pamphlet.
449
Partially Collapsed Two-Room Log Cabin at Johnson Mine
Just Below Johnson Lake
Partially Collapsed Log Building at Johnson Mine Just Below Johnson Lake
450
»1
Partially Collapsed Log Structure at Johnson Mine Just Below Johnson Lake
Partially Collapsed Log Cabin at Johnson Mine Just Below Johnson Lake
451
Cable-Way at Johnson Mine
452
Debris in Collapsed Cable-Way Terminal Structure at Johnson Mine
453
Cable-Way at Johnson Mine with Adit in Far Background
454
Johnson Mine Adit Near Ridge
455
Johnson Lake Dam
>*
Johnson Lake from Bottom of Cable-Way
456
St. Lawrence "East" (12)
St. Lawrence "East" is a mining site east of the St. Lawrence Mine that contains a partially
collapsed log cabin with a damaged stone chimney, at least six trenches that appear to be
extensive bulldozer cuts (the largest trench is approximately 150 feet long, 20 feet wide,
and 10 feet deep), and waste piles. The site lacks known historical documentation and
distinctive architectural features, and thus does not meet the National Register standards
for significance under Criterion C. The site is recommended for natural deterioration.
Although located in a largely inaccessible area, measures should be undertaken to insure
visitor safety. The site, however, does provide the opportunity for interpretation in the
visitor center or via a park pamphlet.
457
**»
Partially Collapsed Cabin at St. Lawrence "East"
Trench or Bulldozer Cut at St. Lawrence "East"
458
St. Lawrence "South" (13)
St. Lawrence "South" is a mining site directly across the canyon south of the St. Lawrence
Mine that contains one standing log cabin, two partially collapsed log cabins, an adit on the
verge of collapse with broken support structures, several prospect holes, a trench, and
miscellaneous trash scatter. The site lacks known historical documentation, and its features
and their condition do not exhibit distinctive characteristics sufficient to meet the National
Register standards of significance and integrity under Criterion C. The site is recommended
for natural deterioration, although measures should be undertaken to insure visitor safety.
Standing Log Cabin at St. Lawrence "South"
459
Adit at St. Lawrence "South"
460
Partially Collapsed Cabin at St. Lawrence "South*
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Partially Collapsed Cabin at St. Lawrence "South"
461
Shoshone Trail Log Structure Remnants (14)
There are log structure remains and two trash dumps near the junction of the Shoshone
Trail and the Johnson Lake Trailhead. The log structure has only seven logs still in Place,
w th some seven to ten logs in the immediate vicinity. There is no known historical
documentation regarding its date of construction or historic function. Thus, the significance
of thTsite cannot be assessed. Since the site does not meet National Register standards
for eligibility under Criterion C, it is recommended for natural deterioration and should not
be interpreted.
462
Pole Canyon Adit-East (15)
The Pole Canyon Adit-East is located on the north side of Pole Canyon in the vicinity of
Kious Spring. It consists of an adit (approximately 3 feet wide, 2-1/2 feet tall, with a 6-
foot vertical drop), tailings pile (approximately 30 feet by 30 feet some 20 feet downslope
of the adit), and rotting timbers. Little is known about this site, and its significance cannot
be assessed. Since it does not meet National Register standards for eligibility under
Criterion C, the site is recommended for natural deterioration. The isolated and largely
inaccessible site should not be interpreted.
Pole Canyon Adit-East
463
Ponderosa Mine (16)
The Ponderosa Mine, located just inside the park boundary about 1-1/4 miles northwest of
the Lexington Arch, consists of adits, trenches, waste piles, an unstable inclined shaft
partially filled with old lumber and stone, and a partially collapsed head frame spread over
several acres. There is evidence at the site of mining activity dating back to the 1920s, but
some of the trenches, a wooden platform, and a fire circle appear to be of more recent
origin. Faint road scars continue uphill from the site, and mining features, including a log
cabin, are found to the east outside the park boundary. Portions of the mining site show
evidence of some natural revegetation during recent years. The deterioration of the mining
features, coupled with the lack of identifiable associated components of a significant mining
operation at the site, combine to minimize the mine's potential eligibility for listing on the
National Register under Criterion C. The site is recommended for natural deterioration, but
measures should be undertaken to insure visitor safety. The site should not be interpreted.
464
Ponderosa Mine
465
South Fork of Big Wash Sawmill (17)
The South Fork of Big Wash Sawmill, which probably dates back to the late nineteenth
century, is located about 1/2 mile northwest of the Ponderosa Mine. Some log foundations,
a cluster of rocks and concentration of lumber, the remains of an old log cabin with walls
three to seven logs high, and a partially dismantled fire tube or fire box boiler mark the
site. A collapsed pile of rock and lumber may have been the sawmill foundation. The log
cabin and the boiler are the only features immediately recognizable, the other features
having collapsed and their materials and artifacts removed from the site. The significance
and integrity of the site have been compromised severely, thus eliminating it from
consideration for National Register eligibility under Criterion C. The largely inaccessible site
is recommended for natural deterioration and should not be interpreted.
466
Safe (18)
A historic safe is located in Pole Canyon near Baker Creek. The steel safe, constructed
by the Cary Safe Company of Buffalo, New York, has an inscribed patent date of Septem-
ber 16, 1890. The safe is cemented into the base of a rock outcrop, and a masonry box
has been built around it; the box has a wooden door. Stone steps lead to the safe from
the creek. To date, research has not provided information relative to the date, purpose,
or function of the safe. While the integrity of the site is good, the lack of known historical
documentation to assess its significance precludes its consideration for National Register
eligibility under Criterion C. The site is recommended for natural deterioration and should
not be interpreted.
467
Safe
468
Dugout (19)
The dugout, located just south of the Pole Canyon-Baker Creek junction, is a wood-lined
step-down shelter that was reportedly constructed for the National Park Service by Civil
Works Administration or Civilian Conservation Corps personnel during the early 1930s.
Inside dimensions of the dugout are approximately 7 feet x 7 feet x 6 feet in height. A
bench is located across the south wall, and the roof, supported by bark-covered pine and
aspen poles, contains a vent. Steps leading down into the shelter are gone, but there is
evidence that a hatch door once covered the dugout opening. A platform in front of the
dugout is defined by a retaining wall. The dugout was apparently used for storage
purposes. The site lacks historical significance and integrity, and thus does not meet
National Register standards under Criterion C. The site is recommended for natural
deterioration and should not be interpreted.
Dugout
469
Dugout
470
Wagon Remnants Along Baker Lake Trail (20)
Wagon remnants are located on the south side of the Baker Lake Trail, approximately 1/2
mile west of the trailhead. The remnants include miscellaneous scattered metal and wooden
parts. Traces of an old road head northeast from the wagon site. Because there is no
known historical documentation to assess the significance of the site and the wagon
remnants possess little integrity, the site does not meet National Register standards for
eligibility under Criterion C. The site is recommended for natural deterioration and should
not be interpreted.
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Wagon Remnants Along Baker Lake Trail
471
■Si
Wagon Remnants Along Baker Lake Trail
Traces of Road with Wagon Remnants in Foreground
472
Young Canyon Stone House (21)
The Young Canyon Stone House is an isolated and partially collapsed stone structure in
the vicinity of Kious Spring. The structure was built of double-coursed, dry-laid stone
chinked with cut lumber. The stones are faced for a smooth appearance. A fireplace
constitutes the main feature of the structure, the chimney forming a semicircular projection
on the rear wall. The house measures approximately 22-3/4 feet by 14-3/4 feet, and the
crumbling walls range between 1-1/2 and 5-1/2 feet in height. There is no evidence of
roofing materials, and there are no associated structures or artifacts nearby. The integrity
of the site is poor, and its significance cannot be assessed because of the lack of known
historical documentation. Thus, this site does not meet the National Register standards for
significance and integrity under Criterion C. The site is recommended for natural
deterioration and should not be interpreted.
Young Canyon Stone House
473
Views of Young Canyon Stone House
474
Lincoln Canyon Mine/Tunnel (22)
The Lincoln Canyon Mine/Tunnel Site consists of an adit, unstable waste dump tramway
supports, and eroding waste piles. The waste piles appear to have once been a very
extensive aggregate (approximately 400 feet x 300 feet x 150 feet deep), but more than
half of the rock has washed downstream at least one-half mile. The operations were
associated with the Mount Wheeler Mine activities during the 1950s and 1960s. The
integrity of the site has been compromised by erosion and deterioration, and because of
its association with mining operations during the 1950s and 1960s it does not meet the
National Register standards for significance under Criterion C. The site is recommended
for natural deterioration, but measures should be undertaken to insure visitor safety. The
site presents the opportunity for interpretation at the visitor center or via a park pamphlet.
475
A /' f* w
Lincoln Canyon Mine Adit
Lincoln Canyon Mine Waste Pile
476
Lincoln Canyon Mine Tramway Supports
477
Bonita Mine (23)
Located on the south side of Snake Creek Road, some 3-1/2 miles west of the park
boundary, the Bonita Mine, a tungsten and scheelite-bearing property, was first prospected
by John D. Tilford in 1912. Camp Bonita was established in 1913, and the mine was
developed during the early years of World War I and again during the early 1940s when
tungsten was in demand. The mine site includes a winding one-mile road with some 24
partially covered or collapsed prospect pits, numerous trenches, and approximately 14 adits
along its length. One collapsed wooden structure and a collapsed log loading platform are
located along the road that winds uphill. Eight of the adits have head frames, one of which
has a wooden door. Other features on the flat area above the creek include two masonry
walls, a masonry trough, and two piles of stone rubble and lumber. A ditch for transporting
water from a drainage west of the site crosses the slope below most of the adits and
prospects but above the masonry features. A wooden feature at the uphill end of this ditch
was either a bridge or flume. An old mechanized dredge or dragline is situated near the
intersection of the mining road and Snake Creek Road.
There is evidence of Forest Service revegetation and trash removal efforts at the mine site
within the past 20 years. As a result, some mining features at the base of the hill have
been obscured or destroyed, leaving piles of rubble and compromising the integrity of the
site. Since the mine is partially visible and easily accessible to park visitors from Snake
Creek Road, it is recommended that the site, which does not meet National Register
standards for integrity under Criterion C, be cleaned up and the debris and refuse removed.
If possible, the site should be restored to its natural state. If this is not possible, measures
should be undertaken to insure visitor safety.
478
Dredge or Dragline at Bonita Mine
■P
-■•
■
Debris at Bonita Mine
479
Collapsed Adit at Bonita Mine
t
Scar on Hillside at Bonita Mine
480
Metal Walkway in Snake Creek at Bonita Mine
481
Chapman-Taylor Mine (24)
The Chapman-Taylor Mine, a tungsten producing property first developed by W.L. Chapman
and A.D. Taylor in 1915-16, consists of some trenches and cuts just north of Big Wash
Spring in the North Fork of Big Wash. The evidence of ground disturbance at the site
would appear to be of more recent origin. To the south of the spring are the remaining
foundations of the Chapman-Taylor Cabin. The site possess few identifiable features
associated with early mining operations, and its integrity has been compromised by more
recent ground disturbance activities. Thus, the site does not meet National Register
standards for significance and integrity under Criterion C. The site is recommended for
natural deterioration and presents the opportunity for interpretation at the visitor center or
via a park pamphlet.
482
Wagon Remnants Along Timber Creek Trail (25)
Wagon remnants are located on the south facing slope of the North Fork of Big Wash
drainage. The remnants include miscellaneous scattered metal and wooden parts.
Because there is no known historical documentation to assess the significance of the site
and the wagon remnants possess little integrity, the site does not meet National Register
standards for eligibility under Criterion C. The site is recommended for natural deterioration
and should not be interpreted.
Timber Creek Trail Wagon Remnants
483
Robison's Corral (26)
Robison's Corral, located along a small spring-fed drainage road north of Strawberry Creek
Road, is an enclosure built of pine logs and posts. While the extant corral's date of
construction has not been established, it has been maintained and used until recent times
by the Robisons, one of the area's early ranching families. The main part of the corral is
approximately 32 feet by 32 feet with a small enclosure (13 feet by 13 feet) added to the
northwest facing side. The large corral is entered by a chute built of milled lumber. Two
water pipes, one abandoned and one still functioning, were used to bring water from a
small nearby stream into a cut 50-gallon drum in the southern corner of the corral. The
enclosure has been stabilized recently with heavy-duty braided galvanized wire bands.
In the absence of historical documentation regarding the origins of the corral, its
significance cannot be assessed. The integrity of the corral has been compromised by
continuing use and recent stabilization efforts. Thus, the site does not meet National
Register standards for significance and integrity under Criterion C. The site is
recommended for natural deterioration, and it presents the opportunity for interpretation at
the visitor center or via a park pamphlet.
Robison's Corral
484
SIGNIFICANT MINES AND MINING-RELATED SITES OUTSIDE BUT NEAR PARK
BOUNDARIES
Hub Mine
The Hub Mine, located in Section 28, T. 13 N., R. 68 E., is located in the Hub Mine Basin
within one-half mile of the park's western boundary south-southwest of Baker Peak. The
mine, one of the most prominent tungsten mines in the Snake Range since its development
in the early 1900s, consists of numerous adits, prospect holes, shafts, and tailings piles in
various stages of collapse and deterioration. The most prominent feature of the mine is the
deep (100-150 feet) and narrow (6-15 feet) shaft that extends several thousand feet up the
mountain side along the seam of the Hub vein. Near the mine are two frame cabins used
by area sheepherders and one collapsed log cabin as well as cement platforms. In the
vicinity of the cabins are stone foundations and leveled spots where cabins of the Hub
mining camp once stood.
485
View of Hub Mine Vein Shaft
486
^Sf- \ \*
View of Hub Mine Vein Shaft
487
- 1
*
Two Cabins at Hub Mine
Collapsed Cabin at Hub Mine
488
Cement Foundations at Hub Mine
Site of Former Hub Mining Camp
489
Mount Wheeler Mine
The Mount Wheeler Mine, a tungsten and beryllium producing property developed during
the 1950s and 1960s, is located just west of the park boundary in Section 15, T. 12 N.,
R. 68 E., and consists of lower and upper mine areas. The lower area has a bunk house,
outbuilding, and cinder block dynamite structure. The upper area has a geologist building
housing numerous core samples, four tin buildings including a compressor house, an old
trailer, a wooden dumping support structure, a mine tunnel entrance with trackage, tailings
piles, and assorted debris.
490
Looking Down on Lower Mine Area from Upper Mine Area
Cinder Block Dynamite Structure
491
Geologist Building
Upper Mine Area/Wooden Dumping Support Structure
492
Upper Mine Area Buildings
Main Shaft of Mount Wheeler Mine
493
St. Lawrence Mine
The St. Lawrence Mine, located in Section 14, T. 12 N., R. 68 E., is situated in the
"keyhole" area near the park's west boundary in the vicinity of Mount Washington. A major
producer of lead, zinc, and tungsten, the mine was first developed in 1906, expanded
significantly during the pre-World War I and early war years, and reopened during the late
1930s and again in the late 1940s. The mine area consists of some 1,500 feet of ground
disturbance along the St. Lawrence vein, with numerous adits, shafts, trenches, and waste
piles, virtually all of which are partially collapsed or crumbling. There are a variety of
historic structures, including log cabins, loading platforms, and a cable way, which range
in condition from partial deterioration to near collapse. Remnants of mining machinery and
debris are in evidence.
494
Views of Cabins at St. Lawrence Mine
495
View of Cableway Remnants at St. Lawrence Mine
496
View of Cableway Remnants at St. Lawrence Mine
497
Views of Cabins at St. Lawrence Mine
498
Cabin at St. Lawrence Mine
imm
i
Sled at St. Lawrence Mine
499
Views of Collapsed Adits and Shafts at St. Lawrence Mine
500
Mine Structure Remnants at St. Lawrence Mine
Cabin at St. Lawrence Mine
501
St. Lawrence "West"
St. Lawrence "West" is located about 1 00 feet south of the Mount Washington Jeep Road
in Section 22, T. 12 N., R. 68 E. south-southwest of the Mount Wheeler Mine. The site
consists of four collapsed log cabins (two with collapsed stone chimneys) and a prospect
pit. The cabins appear to date from the 1920s, but their relationship to specific area mining
operations has not been determined.
Cabin Remains at St. Lawrence "West"
502
Views of Cabin Remains at St. Lawrence "West"
503
Cabin Remains at St. Lawrence West
504
EPILOGUE
During the past two centuries the area of present-day Great Basin National Park has played
a role in many of the passing stages of the American Southwest frontier. While the earliest
Euroamerican presence in the Great Basin occurred in 1776 with the Spanish expeditions
of Escalante-Dominguez and Garces, the first known Euroamerican to pass within the
vicinity of the park area (via Sacramento Pass) was Jedediah Smith, a fur trapper and
trader, mountain man, and explorer, in 1827. The Great Basin received increasing attention
by Americans during the 1840s as the result of the widely-heralded explorations of John
Charles Fremont, who gave the region its name, and the reports and experiences of
emigrant parties on their way to new homes in California and later of the hordes crossing
the American Southwest to participate in the California Gold Rush. First claimed by Spain
and then by Mexico after that country's independence was achieved in 1821, the area of
the park, along with much of the Southwest, became American territory in 1848 as a result
of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ending the Mexican War.
The earliest vestiges of Euroamerican civilization came to the park vicinity in the 1850s.
During that decade Mormons from Utah Territory explored the park vicinity, made the first
documented ascent of Wheeler Peak, and established the first agricultural settlement in
Snake Valley at present-day Garrison. The decade also witnessed efforts by Howard R.
Egan and Captain James H. Simpson to establish a trail and military wagon road,
respectively, across the central route of the Great Basin via Sacramento Pass in the vicinity
of the park.
Scientific and government studies and surveys in the park region were commenced during
the 1860s. First Lieutenant George M. Wheeler traversed the park vicinity during the late
1860s while conducting his initial investigations that eventually developed into the United
States Geographical Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian. John Muir visited the
Wheeler Peak area during the late 1870s while traveling through the West, making
observations and collecting data for his writings that promoted conservation and protection
of America's natural resources. During the late 1870s and 1880s the U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey established a triangulation station on Wheeler Peak (remnants of the
station structures' rock foundations are extant) as part of its 2,500-mile geodetic connection
between the Pacific and Atlantic coasts along the 39th parallel of latitude - the first large
land-scale trigonometrical survey of the nation.
Mining and agricultural development occurred in the Snake Range and adjacent Snake and
Spring valleys beginning in 1869. As an outgrowth of the White Pine mining rush which
commenced in eastern Nevada in 1865, mining districts were first established in the Snake
Range in 1869. Eventually six mining districts would be created on lands now in the park,
and mines producing silver, lead, gold, tungsten, scheelite, and beryllium would be
developed in the park area and vicinity. While the most extensive and productive mines in
the park vicinity, such as the St. Lawrence, Hub, and Mount Wheeler and the Osceola
placer and lode operations, lie outside the park boundaries, various mines of lesser
importance are found in the park. These operations include the Johnson, Ponderosa,
Bonita, and Chapman-Taylor mines, the Pole Canyon Adit-East, and the Lincoln Canyon
Mine/Tunnel. Some 10 miles of the 18-mile Osceola (East) Ditch, constructed in 1889-90
to carry water to the Osceola placer mining operations, are located in the park, and the
ditch is being recommended for listing on the National Register of Historic Places.
Throughout the park are the remains of various isolated mining-related cabins or cabin
groups, such as the Baker Lake Cabin, Tilford Spring Cabin, Young Canyon Stone House,
and the St. Lawrence "East" and "South" cabin groups. The Johnson Mill, an ore-
processing facility in upper Snake Creek Canyon, and the South Fork of Big Wash Sawmill,
505
a lumber-cutting operation, are examples of early mining-related industrial development
within the park boundaries.
The first permanent settlers entered Snake and Spring valleys in 1869, establishing ranches
and farms to provide fruit, vegetables, meat, dairy products, and other foodstuffs for the
growing number of scattered mining settlements in eastern Nevada. During the next several
decades the increasing number of ranchers formed the nucleus of fledgling agricultural
communities in the park vicinity, including Baker, Garrison, and Burbank. As the area's
initial mining rush activities subsided during the 1870s, the dominant economic activity in
the park vicinity became livestock raising, the Snake Range providing forage for summer
grazing operations for large numbers of cattle and sheep.
Absalom S. Lehman, one of the earliest settlers and ranchers in Snake Valley, discovered
what would become known as Lehman Caves about 1885. During the next six years he
began developing, publicizing, and opening the caverns for tours. At the same time he
planted an orchard just below the mouth of the cave and constructed a 2-mile aqueduct or
ditch to convey water from Lehman Creek and several other nearby sources to his orchard
and homestead. The extant remains of the orchard and aqueduct were listed on the
National Register of Historic Places in 1975.
During the early 20th century much of the southern Snake Range was placed under the
jurisdiction of federal land management agencies as a means of protecting and conserving
the area's resources. In 1909 Nevada National Forest was established, and a significant
portion of the range, including the present park area, came under the administration of the
recently-established U.S. Forest Service in two land designations in 1909 and 1912. As part
of its conservation ethic, the bureau favored a multiple-purpose resource utilization policy
under which the land and its resources would serve a variety of regulated economic
functions.
In 1922 Lehman Caves National Monument was established by presidential proclamation
under the authority of the Antiquities Act of 1906. Under the administration of the Forest
Service the national monument was the recipient of increasing visitation during the 1920s,
resulting in the construction of new visitor facilities and overnight accommodations. Built in
the late 1920s and named for Clarence and Beatrice Rhodes, who served as the Lehman
Caves custodians during the 1920s and early 1930s, the Rhodes Cabin is a representative
example of such accommodations. Although moved from its original location and placed on
a concrete foundation during the 1960s, the restored log cabin was listed on the National
Register in 1975. The national monument was administered by the Forest Service until
1933 when it was transferred to the National Park Service as part of a major reorganization
of the federal government's executive department. The movement to enlarge the national
monument and change its designation to national park status, first initiated in 1924, finally
achieved success on October 17, 1986, with the establishment of Great Basin National
Park.
506
A
P
P
E
N
D
I
E
S
APPENDIX A
JOHN C. FREMONT'S OBSERVATIONS ON THE GREAT BASIN
WRITTEN AT UTAH LAKE ON MAY 24, 1844
In arriving at the Utah lake, we had completed an immense circuit of
twelve degrees diameter north and south, and ten degrees east and west;
and found ourselves, in May, 1844, on ihe same sheet of water which we
had left in September, 1843. The Utah is the southern limb of the Great
Salt lake ; and thus we had seen that remarkable sheet of water both at its
northern and southern extremity, and were able to fix its position at these
two points. The circuit which we had made, and which had cost us eight
months of time, and 3,500 miles of travelling, had given us a view of
Oregon and of North California from the Rocky mountains to the Pacific
ocean, and of the two principal streams which form bays or harbors on the
coast of that sea. Having completed this circuit, and being now about to
turn the back upon the Pacific slope of our continent, and to rccross the
Rocky mountains, it is natural to look back upon our footsteps, and take
some brief view of the leading features and general structure of the coun-
try we had traversed. These are peculiar and striking,and differ essentially
from the Atlantic side of our country. The mountainsall are higher, more
numerous, and more distinctly defined in their ranges and directions; and,
what is so contrary to the natural order of such formations, one of these
ranges, which is near the coast, (the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range,)
presents higher elevations and peaks than any which are to be found in the
Rocky mountains themselves. In our eight months' circuit, we were never
out of sight of snow ; and the Sierra Nevada, where we crossed it, was
near 2,000 feet higher than the South Pass in the Rocky mountains. In
height, these mountains greatly exceed those of the Atlantic side, con-
stantly presenting peaks which enter the region of eternal snow ; and some
of them volcanic, and in a frequent state of activity. They are seen at
great distances, and guide the traveller in his courses.
The course and elevation of these ranges give direction to the rivers and
iharacter to the coast. No great river does, or can, take its rise below the
Cascade and Sierra Nevada range ; the distance to the sea is too short to
admit of it. The rivers of the San Francisco bay, which are the largest
after the Columbia, are local to that bay, and lateral to the coast, having
r.heir sources about on a line with the Dalles of the Columbia, and running
.iach in a valley of its own, between Coast range and the Cascade and Sierra
Nevada range. The Columbia is the only river which traverses the whole
breadth of the country, breaking through all the ranges, and entering the
sea. Drawing its waters from a section of ten degrees of latitude in the
Rocky mountains, which are collected into one stream by three main forks
; Lewis's, Clark's, and the North fork) near the centre of the Oregon valley,
this great river thence proceeds by a single channel to the sea, while its
3hr ee forks lead each to a pass in the mountains, which opens the way into
509
the interior of the continent. This fact in relation to the rivers of this
region gives an immense value to the Columbia. Its mouth is the only
inlet and outlet to and from the sea ; its three forks lead to the passes in
■the mountains ; it is therefore the only line of communication between the
Pacific and the interior of North America; and all operations of war or
commerce, of national or social intercourse, must be conducted upon it.
This gives it a value beyond estimation, and would involve irreparable
injury if lost. In this unity and concentration of its waters, the Pacific
side of our continent differs entirely from the Atlantic side, where the
waters of the Allegany mountains are dispersed into many rivers, having
their different entrances into the sea, and opening many lines of communi-
cation with the interior.
The Pacific coast is equally different from that of the Atlantic. The
coast of the Atlantic is low and open, indented with numerous bays,
sounds, and river estuaries, accessible every where, and opening by many
channels into the heart of the country. The Pacific coast, on the con-
trary, is high and compact, with few bays, and but one that opens into
the heart of the country. The immediate coast is what the seamen call
iron bound. A little within, it is skirted by two successive ranges of moun-
tains, standing as ramparts between the sea and the interior country ; and
to get through which, there is but one gate, and that narrow and easily de-
fended. This structure of the coast, backed by these two ranges of moun-
tains, wiih its concentration and unity of waters, gives to the country an
immense military strength, and will probably render Oregon the most im-
pregnable country in the world.
Differing so much from the Atlantic side of our continent, in coast,
mountains, and rivers, the Pacific side differs from it in another most rare
and singular feature — that of the Great interior Basin, of which I have so
often spoken, and the whole form and character of which I was so anxious
to ascertain. Its existence is vouched for by such of the American traders
and hunters as have some knowledge of that region ; the structure of the
Sierra Nevada range of mountains requires it to be there; and my own
observations confirm it. Mr. Joseph Walker, who is so weir acquainted iu
those parts, informed me that, from the Great Salt lake west, there was a
succession of lakes and rivers which have no outlet to the sea, nor any
connexion with the Columbia, or with the Colorado of the Gulf of Cali-
fornia. He described some of these lakes as being large, with numerous
streams, and even considerable rivers, falling into them. In fact, all concur
in the general report of these interior rivers and lakes; and, for wa»,t of
understanding the force and power of evaporation, which so soon estab-
lishes an equilibrium between the loss and supply of waters, the fable ot
whirlpools and subterraneous outlets has gained belief, as the only imagi-
nable way of carrying off the waters which have no visible discharge.
The structure of the country would require this formation of interior lakes;
for the waters which would collect between the Rocky mountains and the
Sierra Nevada, not being able to cross this formidable barrier, nor to get to
the Columbia or the Colorado, must naturally collect into reservoirs, each
of which would have its little system of streams and rivers to supply if.
This would be the natural effect ; and what I saw went to confirm it. The
Great Salt lake is a formation of this kind, and quite a large one; and having
many streams, and one considerable river, four or five hundred miles long,
falling into it. This lake and river I saw and examined myself; and also 3av
510
the Wah-satch and Bear River mountains which enclose the waters of the
lake on the east, and constitute, in that quarter, the rim of the Great Basin.
Afterwards, along the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada, where we trav-
elled for forty-two days, I saw the line of lakes and rivers which lie at the
foot of that Sierra ; and which Sierra is the western rim of the Basin. In
going down Lewis's fork and the main Columbia, I crossed only inferior
streams coming in from the left, such as could draw their water from a
short distance only; and I often saw the mountains at their heads, white
with snow; which, all accounts said, divided the waters of the desert from
those of the Columbia, and which could be no other than the range of
mountains which form the rim ol the Basin on its northern side. And in
returning from California along the Spanish trail, as far as the head of the
Santa Clara fork of the Rio Virgen, I crossed only small streams making
.their way south to the Colorado, or lost in sand — as the Mo-hah-ve ; while
to the left, lofty mountains, their summits white with snow, were often visi-
ble, and which must have turned water to the north as well as to the south,
and thus constituted, on this part, the southern rim of the Basin. At the-
head of the Santa Clara fork, and in the Vegas de Santa Clara, we crossed
the ridge which parted the two systems of waters. We entered the Basin
at that point, and have travelled in it ever since, having its southeastern
rim (the Wah-satch mountain) on the right, and crossing the streams which
flow down into it. The existence of the Basin is therefore an established
fact in my mind ; its extent and contents are yet to be better ascertained.
It cannot be less than four or five hundred miles each way, and must lie
principally in the Aha California; the demarcation latitude of 42° proba-
bly cutting a segment from the north part of the rim. Of its interior, but
little is known, it is called a desert, andlfroin what I saw of it, sterility
may be its prominent characteristic ; but where there is so much water,
there must be some oasis. The great river, and the great lake, reported,
may not be equal to the report ; but where there is so much snow, there
must be streams; and where there is no outlet, there must be lakes to hold
the accumulated waters, or sands to swallow them up. In this eastern
part of the Basin, containing Sevier, Utah, and the Great Salt lakes, **A
the rivers and creeks falling into them, we know there is good soil »B»
good grass, adapted to civilized settlements. In the western part, on SaW
mon Trout river, and some other streams, the same remark may be made-
The contents of this Great Basin are yet to be examined. That itij
peopled, we know ; but miserably and sparsely. From all that I heard »»»
saw, I should say that humanity here appeared in its lowest form, and 1*
its most elementary state. Dispersed in single families ; without fire ****••
eating seeds and insects ; digging roots, (and hence their name) — soch ■
the condition of the greater part. Others are a degree higher, and Ifo>j[
communities upon some lake or river that supplies fish, and from whi»
they repulse the miserable Digger. The rabbit is the largest animal kno#g
in this desert ; its flesh affords a little meat ; and their bag-like covering*
made of its skins. The wild sage is their only wood, and here it is of***
traordinary size — sometimes a foot in diameter, and six or eight feet.bi^
J
It serves for fuel, for building material, for shelter to the rabbits, and
some sort of covering for the feet and legs in cold weather. Such are
accounts of the inhabitants and productions of the Great Basin ; and wf"
though imperfect, must have some foundation, and excite our desire to
the whole.
511
The whole idea of such a desert, and such a people, is a novelty in our
country, and excites Asiatic, not American ideas. Interior basins, with
their own systems of lakes and rivers, and often sterile, are common enough
in Asia; people still in the elementary state of families, living in deserts,
with no other occupation than the mere animal search for food, may still
be seen in that ancient quarter of the globe ; but in America such things
are new and strange, unknown and unsuspected, and discredited when
related. But I flatter myself that what is discovered, though not enough
to satisfy curiosity, is sufficient to excite it, and that subsequent explorations
will complete what has been commenced.
"A Report of the Exploring Expedition to Oregon and North California in the Years 1843-44," in Report of the
Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains by John Charles Fremont (Readex Microprint Corporation, 1966),
pp. 274-77.
512
APPENDIX B
GEOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR UPON UPPER CALIFORNIA IN ILLUSTRATION
OF HIS MAP OF OREGON AND CALIFORNIA BY JOHN C. FREMONT (WASHINGTON, 1848)
THE GREAT BASIN
East of the Sierra Nevada, and between it and the Rocky Mountains,
is that anomalous feature in our continent, the Great Basin, the existence
of which was advanced as a theory after the second expedition, and is
now established as a geographical fact. It is a singular feature: a basin of
some five hundred miles diameter every way, between four and five
thousand feet above (he level of the sea, shut in all around by mountains,
with its own system of lakes and rivers, and having no connection what-
ever with the sea. Partly arid and sparsely inhabited, the general char-
acter of the Great Basin is that of desert, but with great exceptions, there
being many parts of it very fit for the residence of a civilized people; and
of these parts, the Mormons have lately established themselves in one of
the largest and best. Mountain is the predominating structure of the
interior of the Basin, with plains between— the mountains wooded and
watered, the plains arid and sterile. The interior mountains conform to
the law which governs the course of the Rocky Mountains and of the
Sierra Nevada, ranging nearly north and south, and present a very uni-
form character of abruptness, rising suddenly from a narrow base of ten
to twentv miles, and attaining an elevation of two to five thousand feet
above the level of the country. They are grassy and wooded, showing
snow on their summit peaks during the greater part of the year, and
affording small streams of water from five to fifty feet wide, which lose
themselves, some in lakes, some in the dry plains, and some in the belt of
alluvial soil at the base; for these mountains have very uniformly this
belt of alluvion, the wash and abrasion of their sides, rich in excellent
grass, fertile, and light and loose enough to absorb small streams. Be-
tween these mountains are the arid plains which receive and deserve
the name of desert. Such is the general structure of the interior of the
Great Basin, more Asiatic than American in its character, and much
resembling the elevated region between the Caspian sea and northern
Persia. The rim of this basin is massive ranges of mountains, of which the
Sierra Nevada on the west, and the Wasatch and Timpanogos chains on
the east, are the most conspicuous. On the north, it is separated from the
waters of the Columbia bv a branch of the Rocky Mountains, and from
513
the Gulf of California, on the south, by a bed of mountainous ranges, of
which the existence has been only recently determined. Snow abounds on
them all; on some, in their loftier parts, the whole year, with wood and
grass; with copious streams of water, sometimes amounting to consider-
able rivers, flowing inward, and forming lakes or sinking in the sands.
Belts or benches of good alluvion are usually found at their base.
Lakes in the Great Basin. The Great Salt Lake and the Utah Lake
are in this basin, toward its eastern rim, and constitute its most interest-
ing feature— one, a saturated solution of common salt, the other, fresh—
the Utah about one hundred feet above the level of the Salt Lake, which
is itself four thousand two hundred above the level of the sea, and con-
nected by a strait, or river, thirty-five miles long.
These lakes drain an area of ten or twelve thousand square miles,
and have, on the east, along the base of the mountain, the usual bench
of alluvion, which extends to a distance of three hundred miles, with
wood and water, and abundant grass. The Mormons have established
themselves on the strait between these two lakes, and will find sufficient
arable land for a large settlement— important from its position as inter-
mediate between the Mississippi Valley and the Pacific Ocean, and on
the line of communication to California and Oregon.
The Utah is about thirty-five miles long, and is remarkable for the
numerous and bold streams which it receives, coming down from the
mountains on the southeast, all fresh water, although a large formation of
rock salt, imbedded in red clay, is found within the area on the southeast,
which it drains. The lake and its affluents afford large trout and other
fish in great numbers, which constitute the food of the Utah Indians
during the fishing season. The Great Salt Lake has a very irregular out-
line, greatly extended at times of melting snows. It is about seventy miles
in length, both lake ranging nearly north and south, in conformity to the
range of the mountains, and is remarkable for its predominance of salt.
The whole lake waters seem thoroughly saturated with it, and every
evaporation of the water leaves salt behind. The rocky shores of the
islands are whitened by the spray, which leaves salt on everything it
touches, and a covering like ice forms over the water, which the waves
throw among the rocks. The shores of the lake in the dry season, when
the waters recede, and especially on the south side, are whitened with
encrustations of fine white salt; the shallow arms of the lake, at the same
time, under a slight covering of briny water, present beds of salt for
miles, resembling softened ice, into which the horses' feet sink to the
fetlock. Plants and bushes, blown by the wind upon these fields, are
entirely encrusted with crystallized salt, more than an inch in thickness.
Upon this lake of salt the fresh water received, though great in quantity,
514
has no perceptible effect. No fish, or animal life of any kind, is found in
it, the larva? on the shore being found to belong to winged insects. A
geological examination of the bed and shores of this lake is of the high-
est interest.
Five gallons of water taken from this lake in the month of September,
and roughlv evaporated over a fire, gave fourteen pints of salt, a part of
which, being subjected to analysis, gave the following proportions:
Chloride of sodium (common salt) 97.80 parts.
Chloride of calcium 0.61
Chloride of magnesium 0.24
Sulphate of soda 0.23 "
Sulphate of lime 1.12
100.00
Southward from the Utah is another lake of which little more is now
known than when Humboldt published his general map of Mexico. It is
the reservoir of a handsome river, about two hundred miles long, rising
in the Wasatch mountains, and discharging a considerable volume of
water. The river and lake were called by the Spaniards Severe, corrupted
by the hunters into Sevier. On the map, they are called Nicollet, in honor
of J. N. Nicollet, whose premature death interrupted the publication of
die learned work on the physical geography of the basin of the Upper
Mississippi, which five years of labor in the field had prepared him to
give.
On the western side of the basin, and immediately within the first
range of the Sierra Nevada, is the Pyramid Lake, receiving the water
of Salmon Trout River. It is thirty-five miles long, between four and five
thousand feet above- the sea, surrounded by mountains, is remarkably
deep and clear, and abounds with uncommonly large salmon trout. South-
ward, along the base of the Sierra Nevada, is a range of considerable
lakes, formed by manv large streams from the sierra. Lake Walker, the
largest among tlie.se, affords great numbers of trout similar to those of the
Pyramid Lake, and is a place of resort for Indians in the fishing season.
There are probably other collections of water not yet known. The
number of small lakes is very great, many of them more or less salty, and
all, like the rivers which feed them, changing their appearance and ex-
tent under the influence of the season, rising with the melting of the
snows, sinking in the dry weather, and distinctly presenting their high-
and low-water mark. These generally afford some fertile and well-
watered land, capable of settlement.
515
Rivers of the Great Basin. The most considerable river in the interior
of the Great Basin is the one called on the map Humboldt River, as the
mountains at its head are called Humbolt Mountains— so called as a
small mark of respect to the "Nestor of scientific travelers," who has
done so much to illustrate North American geography, without leaving
his name upon any one of its remarkable features. It is a river long
known to hunters, and sometimes sketched on maps under the name of
Mary's, or Ogden's, but now for the first time laid down with any preci-
sion. It is a very peculiar stream, and has many characteristics of an
Asiatic river— the Jordan, for example, though twice as long— rising in
mountains and losing itself in a lake of its own, after a long and solitary
course. It rises in two streams in mountains west of the Great Salt Lake,
which unite, after some fifty miles, and bears westwardly along the north-
ern side of the basin toward the great Sierra Nevada, which it is destined
never to reach, much less to pass. The mountains in which it rises are
round and handsome in their outline, capped with snow the greater part
of the year, well clothed with grass and wood, and abundant in water.
The stream is a narrow line, without affluents, losing by absorption and
evaporation as it goes, and terminating in a marshy lake, with low
shores fringed with bulrushes, and whitened with saline encrustations.
It has a moderate current, is from two to six feet deep in the dry season,
and probably not fordable anywhere below the junction of the forks
during the time of melting snows, when both lake and river are con-
siderably enlarged. The country through which it passes (except its im-
mediate vallev) is a dry sandy plain, without grass, wood, or arable soil;
from about 4,700 feet (at the forks) to 4,200 feet (at the lake) above
the level of the sea, winding among broken ranges of mountains, and
varying from a few miles to twenty in breadth. Its own immediate valley
is a rich alluvion, beautifully covered with blue grass, herd grass, clover,
and other nutritious grasses; and its course is marked through the plain
by a line of willow and cottonwood trees, serving for fuel. The Indians
in the fall set fire to the grass and destroy all trees except in low grounds
near the water.
This river possesses qualities which, in the progress of events, may
give it both value and fame. It lies on the line of travel to California and
Oregon, and is the best route now known through the Great Basin, and
the one traveled by emigrants. Its direction, nearly east and west, is the
right course for that travel. It furnishes a level unobstructed way for
nearly three hundred miles, and a continuous supply of the indispensable
articles of water, wood, and grass. Its head is toward the Great Salt Lake,
and consequently toward the Mormon settlement, which must become a
point in the line of emigration to California and the Lower Columbia. Its
516
termination is within fifty miles of the base of the Sierra Nevada, and
opposite the Salmon Trout Bivcr Pass— a pass only seven thousand two
hundred feet above the level of the sea, and less than half that above the
level of the basin, and leading into the valley of the Sacramento some
forty miles north of Nueva Helvetia. These properties give to this river
a prospective value in future communications with the Pacific Ocean, and
the profile view on the north of the map shows the elevations of the
present traveling route, of which it is a part, from the South Pass, in the
Rocky Mountains, to the Bay of San Francisco.
The other principal rivers of the Great Basin are found on its cir-
cumference, collecting their waters from the snowy mountains which
surround it, and are, 1. Bear River, on the east, rising in the massive
range of the Timpanogos Mountains and falling into the Great Salt Lake,
after a doubling course through a fertile and picturesque valley two hun-
dred miles long. 2. The Utah River and Timpanaozu or Timpanogos,
discharging themselves into the Utah Lake on the east, after gathering
their copious streams in the adjoining parts of the Wasatch and Tim-
panogos mountains. 3. Nicollet River, rising south in the long range of
the Wasatch Mountains, and falling into a lake of its own name, after
making an arable and grassy valley, two hundred miles in length, through
mountainous country. 1. Salmon Trout River, on the west, running down
from the Sierra Nevada and falling into Pyramid Lake, after a course of
about one hundred miles. From its source, about one-third of its valley
is through a pine-timbered country, and for the remainder of the way
through very rocky, naked ridges. It is remarkable for the abundance
and excellence of its salmon trout, and presents some ground for cultiva-
tion. 5. Garson and Walker rivers, both handsome clear-water streams
nearly one hundred miles long, coming, like the preceding, down the
eastern flank of the Sierra Nevada and forming lakes of their own name
at its base. They contain salmon trout and other fish, and form some
large bottoms of good land. 6. Owens River, issuing from the Sierra
Nevada on the south, is a large bold stream about one hundred and
twenty miles long, gathering its waters in the Sierra Nevada, flowing to
the southward, and forming a lake about fifteen miles long at the base
of the mountain. At a medium stage it is generally four or five feet deep,
in places fifteen, wooded with willow and Cottonwood, and makes con-
tinuous bottoms of fertile land, at intervals rendered marshy by springs
and small affluents from the mountain. The water of the lake in which it
terminates has an unpleasant smell and bad taste, but around its shores
are found small streams of pure water with good grass. On the map this
has been called Owens River.
Besides these principal rivers issuing from the mountains on the cir-
517
cumference of the Great Basin, there are many others, all around, all
obeying the general law of losing themselves in sands, or lakes, or belts
of alluvion, and almost all of them an index to some arable land, with
grass and wood.
Interior of the Great Basin. The interior of the Great Basin, so far as
explored, is found to be a succession of sharp mountain ranges and naked
plains, such as have been described. These ranges are isolated, presenting
summit lines broken into many peaks, of which the highest are between
ten and eleven thousand feet above the sea. They are thinly wooded with
some varieties of pine (Pinus monophijllus characteristic), cedar, aspen,
and a few other trees, and afford an excellent quality of bunch grass,
equal to any found in the Rocky Mountains. Black-tailed deer and moun-
tain sheep are frequent in these mountains; which, in consideration of
their grass, water, and wood, and the alluvion at their base, may be called
fertile, in the radical sense of the word, as signifying a capacity to pro-
duce, or bear, and in contradistinction to sterility. In this sense these
interior mountains may be called fertile. Sterility, on the contrary, is the
absolute characteristic of the valleys between the mountains— no wood,
no water, no grass, the gloomy artemisia the prevailing shrub— no animals,
except the hares, which shelter in these shrubs, and fleet and timid
antelope, always on the watch for danger, and finding no place too dry
and barren which gives it a wide horizon for its view and a clear field
for its flight. No birds are seen in the plains, and few on the mountains.
But few Indians are found, and those in the lowest state of human
existence, living not even in communities, but in the elementary state of
families, and sometimes a single individual to himself— except about the
lakes stocked with fish, which become the property and resort of a small
tribe. The abundance and excellence of the fish in most of these lakes is
a characteristic; and the fishing season is to the Indians the happy season
of the year.
Climate of the Great Basin. The climate of the Great Basin does not
present the rigorous winter due to its elevation and mountainous struc-
ture. Observations made during the last expedition show that around the
southern shores of the Salt Lake, latitude 40° 30' to 41" for two weeks
of the month of October, 1845, from the 13th to the 27th, the mean
temperature was 40° at sunrise, 70° at noon, and 54° at sunset— ranging
at sunrise from 28° to 57°; at noon, from 62° to 76°; at four in the after-
noon, from 58° to 69°; and at sunset, from 47° to 57°.
Until the middle of the month the weather remained fair and very
pleasant. On the 15th, it began to rain in occasional showers, which
whitened with snow the tops of the mountains on the southeast side of
the lake valley. Flowers were in bloom during all the month. About the
518
18th, on one of the large islands in the south of the lake, helianthus,
several species of aster, Erodium cicutarium, and several other plants
were in fresh and full bloom; the grass of the second growth was coming
up finely, and vegetation generally betokened the lengthened summer of
the climate.
The 16th, 17th, and 18th, stormy with rain; heavy at night; peaks of
the Rear River Range and tops of the mountains covered with snow. On
the 18th, cleared with weather like that of late spring, and continued
mild and clear until the end of the month, when the fine weather was
again interrupted by a dav or two of rain. No snow within 2,000 feet
above the level of the valley.
Across the interior, between latitudes 41° and 38°, during the month
of November (5th to 25th) the mean temperature was 29° at sunrise and
40° at sunset, ranging at noon (by detached observations) between 41°
and 00°. There was a snowstorm between the 4th and 7th, the snow
falling principally at night, and sun occasionally breaking out in die day.
The lower hills and valleys were covered a few inches deep with snow,
which the sun carried off in a few hours after the storm was over.
The weather then continued uninterruptedly open until die close of
the year, without rain or snow, and during the remainder of November,
generally eli ar and beautiful; nights and mornings calm, a light breeze
during the dav, and strong winds of very rare occurrence. Snow re-
mained only on the peaks of the mountains.
On the western side of the basin, along the base of the Sierra Nevada,
during two weeks from the 25th November to the 11th December, the
mean temperature at sunrise was 11° and at sunset 34°, ranging at sun-
rise from zero to 21°, and at sunset from 23° to 44°. For ten consecutive
days of the same period, the mean temperature at noon was 45°, ranging
from 33° to 50 ". The weather remained open, usually very clear, and
the rivers were frozen.
The winter of 'T'l-'M, within the basin, was remarkable for the same
open, pleasant weather, rarely interrupted by rain or snow. In fact, there
is nothing in the climate of this great interior region, elevated as it is, and
surrounded and traversed by snowy mountains, to prevent civilized man
from making it his home, and finding in its arable parts the means of a
comfortable subsistence; and this the Mormons will probably soon prove
in the parts about the Great Salt Lake. The progress of their settlement
is already threat. On the first of April of the present year, they had 3,000
acres in wheat, seven saw and grist mills, seven hundred houses in a
fortified enclosure of sixty acres, stock, and other accompaniments of a
flourishing settlement.
519
Such is the Great Basin, heretofore characterized as a desert, and in
some respects meriting that appellation, but already demanding the
qualification of great exceptions, and deserving the full examination of a
thorough exploration.
The complete text of the geographical memoir may be found in Nevins, ed., Narratives of Exploration and
Adventure, pp. 514-21. k «'«»«» «""
520
APPENDIX C
REMINISCENCES OF WHITE MOUNTAIN EXPEDITION
IN AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF GEORGE WASHINGTON BEAN
It was in Ma/ch that President Young called on me to
take a partv and proceed into the- Desert regions west of
Fillmore and Beaver to find hiding places for the Saints in
case Johnston's Army came in. All north of Utah Valley
were to move everything of value except real estate and
improvements and go south. Instructions were given to
destroy homes rather than let the enemy take them. Straw
was placed in houses and sentinels near.
Our party started out the middle of March through deep
snow, which hampered our progress, through Juab County
to Chicken Creek where we found good feed and bare
ground. We went to Uolden and across Sevier River where
we joined with other men and teams on the same errand.
On top of the West Mountain range on April 8th, we faced
the roughest snowstorm that it was ever my lot to meet.
We got into any shelter possible and waited all the rest of
the day and night — twenty-seven hours of snow without ces-
sation, and heavy wind most of the time. We lost five horses,
had wagon covers torn to strips, cattle driven before the
storm for forty miles and some of the brethren dug holes in
the ground to shelter and save themselves.
It seemed that an opposing power had got into our path
trying to prevent our further progress. However, in two or
three days we got things together and moved on, and in a
week reached the foot of the White Mountains, and soon
located one resting place on Snake Creek, where the breth-
ren put in fifty or sixty acres of grain. Meanwhile, myself
and others pushed west and south toward the Pahranegat
Valley outside of the Great Basin.
We explored a cave for the first time in this generation.
It was over a mile in extent, and about midway of the dis-
tance we passed through a low narrow passage and then
into a large room two hundred feet wide and twenty
to thirty feet high. A spring of clear water gave off a
stream about 100 yards in length, running in a fine clay
bed which was filled with thousands of barefoot human
tracks; and on close examination, we found that great
quantities of clay had been carried out. In this narrow
opening and a little elevated, there was a great amount of
ashes, showing that fires had frequently been maintained
there for the burning or removal of clay or its products.
We found the clay of most excellent quality for potter's
ware and made some tests from the clay I carried to Roberts,
our Provo potter. Fires had also been kept at various angles
of the eight hundred yards from the mouth of the Cave to
the spring. By inquiry of the Native Indians nearby, we
learned that all such, as making of pottery, mounds, inscrip-
521
tions on rocks, and the like, were done by the Tribe of
Moquis, in ages past. Indeed all advanced evidences of
industry are credited to that people, who were the old
settlers of this mountain region.
While engaged in these explorations, we fell in with
President W. H. Dame and party from Parowan; Walkers,
Haslams, Day and others from Cedar City; James Low,
Mathews and others from Beaver; all out for the same
purpose, by which means we became well acquainted with
south-east Nevada, but it was left for others to discover the
rich mines of Pioche and Frisco later.
During this time our staunch friend, Col. Thomas L.
Kane, was again standing by the "Mormons". His heart
was first touched when he visited the deserted City of
Nauvoo, and heard the boasts of mobs who were desecrating
the lovely homes and sacred Temple we had left. Then
again at Council Bluffs when the Mormon Battalion was
mustered in and began their march as soldiers of our United
Slates against Mexico. There he learned the spirit of Brig-
ham Young and the Mormons, and now they need him to
intercede in protection of their Territorial rights, and he is
here among us. He traveled not as Col. Kane, but incognito
as "Dr. Osborne" from New York, over Panama, to San
Bernardino, into Utah, where he met old acquaintances.
After a conference with President Young and others, he
went out to Fort Scott to appeal to General Albert Sidney
Johnston, and bring the new Governor of the Territory,
Alfred dimming, into his place among the people, to see
conditions for himself.
Well, when we returned June 7th, the people had gone to
southern settlements, Governor Cumming was here, Col.
Kane had hurried back to Washington, and the two Peace
Commissioners he asked from President Buchanan. Gov.
Powell and Ben McCullock, had arrived, and now we were
all "forgiven" of rebellion, treason, arson, and other crimes
we had not committed, when truth prevailed.
General Albert Sidney Johnston and his army were per-
mitted to march through the City on Brigham Street to
Jordan River and south to Cedar Valley, where they located
"Camp Floyd", just west of Utah Lake, and peace was
established. The two Peace Commissioners, Governor
Powell of Kentucky, and Ben McCullough of Texas, had
to come to Provo to find President Young and the other
officials who moved south; however, the terms were agre.-d
upon, the soldiers located and the people began to move
back home.
Flora Diana Bean Home, comp., Autobiography of George Washington Bean, pp. 132-35.
522
APPENDIX D
CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF GREAT BASIN AS DESCRIBED
BY JAMES H. SIMPSON IN HIS
THE SHORTEST ROUTE TO CALIFORNIA (1869), PAGES 35-55
o The first thing which will strike one, on looking at
the map, is the groat number of mountain ranges
which the routes cross in the Great Basin. This
will appear the more remarkable, as the idea has
been generally entertained, since the explorations of
Fremont in 1843 and 1S44 (though, us before re-
marked, he corrected the error on his succeeding ex-
pedition), that this Great Basin was, a jlat vtmntry
scattered over wit/i a xi/stem of tnuill lith* and rirer*,
and destitute of mountains. The fact, on the con-
trary, is that it is probably the most mountainous
region, considering its extent, within the limits of
our country, and so far from being scattered over
with a system" of small lakes and rivers, which
seems to imply a considerable number of0tbis kind
of water area, it has but a limited number of lakes,
and they almost entirely confined to the bases of t lie
great Sierras which liound the Basin.
These lakes are — proceeding from north to south,
and around the circumference of the Great Basin —
Great Salt Lake, Lake Utah, Sevier Lake, and Small
Salt Lake, on the eastern side of the Basin ; and on
the west, proceeding from south to north, Owen's
Lnke, Mono Lake, Walker's Lake, the two Carson
Lakes, Humboldt **Lake, Pyramid Lake, the Mud
Lakes, and Lake Abert. Besides these, there are
Franklin Lake and Goshoot Lake, to the east „of
the East Humboldt Range. These constitute all the
The principal rivers which, on account of their
width and depth, require" bridging or ferry in their
flush state, during the time of melting snow, are the
Bear, Weber, Roseau x or Malade, Jordan, Timpano-
gos, Spanish Fork, and Sevier Rivers, which have
their sources in the Wasatch Mountains, on the east
side of the Basin, and How into lakes near, the base of
these mountains; the Mojave, Owen's, Walker's, Car-
son, and Truckee or Salmon Trout, which, ha'^e their
Bources°in the Sierra Nevada, and flow into ^akes at
bat Have been discovered in the Grsttt Basin,
•y are all without outlet. Great St\% Lake is
ty miles long and from twenty to thirty broad ;
Did and Walker's Lakes, the next largest, are
i about thirty miles long by ten wide; all the
others are smaller. Pyramid Lake, Walker's Lake,
and Utah Lake, which are all fresh-water lakes,
abound in fine large trout.
523
their base and sink ; and the Humboldt River, which
flows from east to south of west along the northern
portion of the Basin and sinks. The longest of these
is the Humboldt, about three hundjBd rnilfs long,
and. the next longest Bear River, about two hundred
and fifty miles long. The others vary from Jforty to
one hundred and twenty miles in length, y ji Width
they vary from about fifty to one hundred J hd. fifty
feet, and in depth from two to fifteen feet", i -pending
upon the season and locality. o \ U
All the other streams are of small extent, and,
taking their rise in the many mountain ranges by
-Men the Basin is traversed, generally from north to
th, they seldom flow beyond their bases, where in
the alluvion they sink. These streams are
so small that one can jump across them, and
require bridging. The large as well as the small
streams mentioned, when not brackish, not unfre-
quenUy contain trout. One of these small streams is
Beesc River, called so by Captain Simpson after his
chief guide. This river has since become famous on
account of the rich silver-bearing rocks with which
its valley is characterized, and its being also the
site of the city of Austin, which so suddenly sprang
into existence after the discovery of the precious
metal.
The trend of (he mountain ninye-s is almost invariably
north and south, thc.limits uf variation being lietween
the true and the magnetic north. The mountains
rise quite abruptly from the plains, and form bases
varying in breadth from a few miles to about twelve.
These mountain ranges are so frequent ami close to-
gether as to make the areas between them more like
valleys than plains. In cross section the valleys are
slightly concave; and Captain Simpson in his survey
crossed them, in a direction of south of west, on the
average every ten or fifteen miles. In length they
are commensurate with the mountain ranges. Longi-
tudinally, or in a general direction north and south,
they are nearly level.
The most mitxxlre <m<i lofty mountains, commencing
at Camp Floyd %j><1 proceeding westward, are the
O-quirr, Guyot, Goshoot or Tots-arr. Cn-go-we-ah,
Mon-tim, Humboldt, We- all- bah, Pc-er-re-nh, and Se-
day-e ranges. Of these the Tots-arr, Un-go-we-ah,
I Humboldt, Pe-er-re-ab, and So-dny-e are the most
massive and lofty. The lengths of the ranges in sonfe
instances were at least one hundred and twenty miles,
and they then extended into unknown regions beyond
the field of Captain Simpson's explorations. These
ranges attain in the case of Union Peak (so called by
Captain Simpson), the highest point of the Tots-arr or
Goshoot Range, an altitude above the plain of fcora
five thousa'nd to six thousand feet, or of from ten
thousand to eleven thousand feet above the sea. In
the case of the O-quirr Range, the highest point (Camp
524
Joyd Peak), according to Lieutenant Putman s meas-
urement, by theodolite, was found to be four thousand
two hundred and fourteen feet above the camp at its
foot; and as this locality, by barometric measurement,
is four thousand eight hundred and sixty feet above
the sea, the peak referred to is nine thousand and
Beventy-four feet above the sea. TkAhiyhett jxtss
was on Captain Simpson's return route, and through
the Un-go-we-ha Range. By barometric 'measure-
ment it was eight thousand one hundred and forty
feet above the sea. The passes are all, with but. little
difficulty, surmountable by wagons; but their/ ^baro-
metrical profiles show that they are too steep fqr rail-
load purposes. These barometrical profiles of Captain
Simpson, to which the Union Pacific Railroad Com-
ply hare had access, have already been of very
1 service in obviating' the great expense of
survey, to which the company would other-
• been obliged to resort.
W; Agricultural characteristic of Qie country
the exceptions being »« follows:
n't more northern rou^, in the
case of the large valleys between the mountain ranges
and going westward from Camp Floyd — Rush Valley,
Pleasant Valley (the valley of Fish or Deep Creek, not
on the route but in the vicinity of Pleasant Valley),
Ruby. Valley, Walker's Valley, and Carson Valley.
All these are cultivable in limited portions. And on
his return route, going eastward from Genoa, Carson
Valley (common to outward route), Steptoe Valley,
Antelope Valley, and Crosman Valley. The altitude
of these valleys above the sea varies from three
thousand eight hundred and forty feet, the lowest
depression of Carson Valley, to six thousand one
hundred and forty-six feet, the latitude of Steptoe
Valley. Carson Valley has already shown its ca-
pacity to grow the small cereals and garden vege-
tables; and we doubt not the other valleys named,
though higher in altitude, will be found sullicicntly
warm to mature the growth of the more hardy ce-
reals and plants. Captain Hinpson's return or more
southern route, though about thirty miles longer, is
much the best in respect to cultivable valleys and
grass.
The other exceptions to the desert character of the
Basin are the «fiuil(%ntrroir ailtrys mid nirinrx of the
mountain streams, which, taking their rise high up
in the mountains, course down to the plains or main
valleys and sink. These valleys, though rich, are gen-
erally too high above the sea, and therefore too cold,
for arable purposes; but are valuable as furnishing
in great abundance the small mountain bunch-grass,
which has fattening qualities almost if not quite
equal to those of oats.
525
Another exception to the universal characteristic
of desert is the abundance of flte dwarf cedar, which
is to be seen on almost every one of the mountain
ridges, and which high up in the mountains is not
unfrequently intermingled with theQnne and moun-
tain mahogany. The abundance of this cedar, as well
as occasional supply of other kinds of timber, has
made Captain Simpson's routes, independent of their
being the shortest across the Great Basin, decidedly
the most practicable for the overland telegraph.
° The portion of the country traversed which may
be .called unqualifiedly desert is, on his more northern
route, the region between Simpson's Springs in the
Champlin Mountains, and the Sulphur Springs at the
east base of the ToSarr or Goshoot Rang°e, a distance
of eighty miles; albeit the grass and water at Fish
Springs intervene, to make the greatest distance be-
tween water and grass forty-eight and a half miles;
between the west base of the Se-day-e Mountains and
Carson Lake, a distance of fifty miles* and Ijjtween
Carson Lake and Walker's River, a distSice of ' wenty-
one miles. On Captain Simpson's return or mote south-
ern route, between Carson River and Carson Lake, a
distance of twenty-three miles; and between the Perry
range and the Champlin Mountains, a distance-pf one
hundred and three miles; though Chapin's f prjngs and
Tyler Spring, with their limited pasture-g^oiind, and
the Good Indian Spring, with its small supply of water
but abundance of grass, within this interval alleviate
io a very material degree this last stretch and take
H out of the category of continuously unmitigated
In relation to the propriety of the term, Great Basin,
being applied to this region of country, we remark,
that if by it the idea is conveyed that this great area
is chiefly one of a hydrographic character, — that is,
filled with lakes and rivers, — it is so far a misnomer.
Erroneous also is the idea "that because it is called
a Basin it must, as a whole, present a generally con-
cave surface. The truth is, it is only a Basin inas-
much as the few lakes and streams that are found
within it sink and karwm outlet to the sea.
It may also be considered as made up of several
minor' or subsidiary basins; and, regarding them in
succession, not in the order of magnitude, we have —
1st. Lake Sevier Basin. Elevation of lowest point above
the sen, slightly less than 4»HH) feet.
2d. Great Salt Lake Basin. Elevation of lowest point
above the sea, 4170 feet.
3d. Humboldt River Masin. Elevation of lowest point
above the sea, near (Beekworth) Lassen's Meadows, 4147
feet.
4th. Carson Kiver Basin. Elevation of lowest point
above the sea, at Carson Lake, M40 feet.
5th. Walker's River Basin. Elevation of lowest point
above the sea, seven miles above Walker's Lake, 407'J
feet. °
526
(Walker's Lake Isasin, estimated at nlioiit same as ( ar-
son), :S8-K) feet.
6th. Owen's Lakf lliwin.* Altitude iiiikiinwii.
7th. Mojave Kiver Hasin. Klevution i»f lowest point
above the sea (Williamson), 1111 feet.
All these valleys or basins, it will be noticed, are
on the <>ut8kirtH of the Great Basin, just within its
circumference; and aa the valleys of the ijreat central
"~l have an average altitude of about five thousand
hundred feet, which is for much the larger portion
at the area about fifteen hundred feet higher than said
basin, and for the Mojave portion over four thousand
feet higher, it will at once be apparent that, as a
whole, the Basin should be conceived as an elevated
central region extended over much tne greater por-
tion, and, in proximity to the circumference, sloping
toward the sub-basins bordering the circumference.
When this idea is entertained, and thin extended
central portion is in addition conceived of as being
traversed by high and extensive ranges of moun-
tains, on an average about fifteen miles apart, rang-
ing north and south and forming intermed ate valleys
of commensurate lengths; bearing in mind at the
same time that the order of depression of "the basins
is from Lake Sevier, where it is least, around suc-
cessively by Great Salt Lake, Humboldt River Val-
ley, Carson Lake, Walker's Lake, to the valley of the
Mojave, where it is much the great^t; a very good
mental daguerreotype can be had of wie (Jreat Basin
inside of its inclosing mountains. From this. <,«esccjp-
tion we think it will be obvious that while t^e so-
called Great Basin is in some small degree a IJasfri of
lakes and streams, it is pre-eminently a Basin q/ moun-
tains and valleys!
In regard to the geological character oftlte mountains
with/in the Great Basin, Captain Simpson's explora-
* ihow that from Camp Floyd west,0as far as
l Kobeh Valley, those of carboniferous origin pro-
's; though over the desert proper, between
'» Springs and the Tots-arr Range, the igneous
are a characteristic, and near the Humboldt Range
those of the Devonian age obtain. From Kobeh Val-
ley to the Sierra Nevada the ranges are almost ex-
clusively of igneous origin, and present few indica-
tions of stratified rocks. The knowledge, geologically,
of this extensive terra incognita, for the first time
given to the government in the reports of Captain
Simpson's assistant, Mr. Engelmann, and by Mr.
Meek, the palaeontologist, is an interesting result of
the expedition, and goes far to fill up the gap that
remained to complete the geological profile of our
country from the Atlantic to the Pacific, on the line
of Captain Simpson's explorations. These reports not
only discuss the geology and palaeontology of the
Great Basin, but also of the whole route through from
Fort Leavgnuyjrth to the Sierra Nevada; and to no two
527
geologists probably could the work have been better
assigned, since Mr. Engelmann, independent of his
scientific and practical ability, was the geologist of
Lieutenant Bryan's expedition to the Rocky Moun-
tains in 1850, and of Captain Simpson's expedition,
from Fort Leavenworth to the Sierra Nevada and
back, in 1858 and 185'J; and Mr. Meek's well-earned
reputation certainly pointed him, out as the most
capable person to whom to refer the paloeontological
discoveries of the expedition. In this connection it
may be also proper to state that Mr. Engelmann,
in his sub-reports, has devoted a great deal of space to
the discussion of the meteorulogunl phenomena of the
Great Basin, and, illustrating as he does his views
by accompanying diagrams, his report will prove of
great value to science in this particular.
With, regard to the Indians of the Great Basin,
Garland Hurt, the intelligent and brave Indian
■gent in Utah during the Mormon difficulty in 1857,
1858) and 1859, and the only civil officer connected
with the general government whom the Mormons
could not drive out of their Territory, has furnished
Captain Simpson with a very interesting memoir.
From this memoir it appears that the Indians of the
Great Basin, including those of the valleys of Green
and Grand Rivers, consist of two tribes; the Ute and
the Sho-shones or Snakes.
The Ute tribe Dr. Hurt divides into the Palv-TJtalis,
Tamp-Pafi~Utes, Cheverkhes, Pah-Vants, San- Pitches,
and Py-edes.
The Utalis proper inhabit the waters of Green
River, south of Green River Mountains, the Grand
River and its tributaries, and as far south as the Na-
vajo country. They also claim the country border-
ing on Utah Lake, and as far south as the Sevier
Lake. They are a brave race, and subsist princi-
pally by hunting. The buffalo having, left their
country and gone east over the Rocky Mountains,
their hunting this game in the c^ntry ef the Arra-
pahoes and Cheyennes brings them in Continual con-
flict with those tribes. Dr. Hurt says it. \i his opinion,
from a familiar acquaintance with them, that there is
not a braver tribe to be found among the aborigines of
America than the Utahs, none warmer- hi their at-
tachments, less relenting in their hatred, or more capa-
ble of treachery. Their chief in 185'.j was Arra-
pene, the successor of the renowned Wacoa, sometimes
erroneously called Walker. Some of the superior
bands, both of the Snakes and Utahs, are it$i~
always in a state of starvation, and are compelled
resort to small animals, roots, grass-seed, and inn
for subsistence. The general government has opened
farms for these Indians in the valleys of the Spanish
Fork and San Pete.
The Pah-vants occupy the Corn Creek, Paravan,
and Beaver Valleys, and the valley of Sevier. On
528
Corn Creek they have a farm under the supervision
of the general government. It was a portion of
this tribe that in reported to have massacred Captain
Gunnison and a number of his party in 1858; though
Mr. J. Forney, Superintendent of Indians in Utah, in
his report of September 21), 1850, fixes the stigma of
this horrible outrage on the Mormons.
The Py-edca live adjoining tbe Pah-vants, down to
the Santa Clara, and are represented as the most timid
and dejected of all the Utah bands. They barter
their children to the Utes proper for a few trinkets
or bits of clothing, by whom they are again sold to
the Navajos for blankets, etc. They indulge in a
rude kind of agriculture, which they probably derived
from the old Spanish .Jesuits. Their productions are
com, beans, and squashes. The Mountain Meadow
massacre is ascribed by the Mormons to them; but,
as Dr. Hurt justly remarks, "any one at all ac-
quainted with them must perceive at once how ut-
terly absurd and impossible it is for such a report to
be true."
The Shosho-rtes Dr. Hurt divides into Snakes, Ban-
nocks, To-si-witches, Go-slia-utes, and Cum-um-pahs,
though he afterward classes the last two divisions
mom between the Sho-sho-nes and the
. Snakes are fierce and warlike in their habits,
inhabit the country bordering on Snake River,
Bear River, Green River, and as far east as Wind
River. They are well supplied with horses and fire-
arms, and subsist principally by hunting. They
are the enemies of the Crows and Blackfeet, on
account of the buffalo having disappeared from their
country west of the Rocky Mountains, and their
being obliged to hunt them as trespassers on the ter-
ritory of these tribes east of the mountains. . They
have also been at war with the Utes for several gen-
erations. They, however, profess friendship for the
* Mr. J. Forney, Superintendent of Indian Affairs in I tan,
classes and numbers the various tribes and bands of Indians in
Utah as follows :
4,500
Spanish Fork and San Pete fai
900
Pah-vant (Utes)
70U
:*:::::::
2,200
"..... 6,000
,.,... 2,000
• 700
"The Sho-eho-nes claim the northeastern pO&jon of the ter-
ritory for about four hundred miles west and from one hundred
to one hundred and twenty-five miles south from the Oregon
line. Tbe Utes claim the balance of the territory." (Pres. Mes.
and Doe., 1859-60, Part I.)
529
♦hitcs; and it is their boast thai under
Wash-i-kee, the blood of the white man h
stained their soil. It is certain, nevertheless, '
small parties of this band, living in. Box !
courvty, with some Bannack Indians from Oi
robbed, during the season of 1859, three "parti
emigrants on the emigration roads to the north i
east of Great Salt Lake, and killed ten or twelve <__
their number.
The liannacka inhabit the southern borders of Ore-
gon, along the old Humboldt River emigrant road,
and have the reputation of infesting that portion of
the route, and of being of a very thievish, treacherous
character.
The To-fia-vitfliM, or While Knives, inhabit the
region along- the Humboldt River, and, according to
Dr. Hurt, have the reputation of being very treach-
erous; though we believe they have proved quite
friendly of late years. Captain Simpson met them
ranging in small parties between the Un-go-we-ah
Range and Cooper's Range on his more southern
route. ,
The Go-shoots Dr. Hurt classes among the Sho-sho-
nes; but according to Mr. George W. Bean, Captain
Simpson's guide in the fall of 1858, who has lived in
Utah ever since the Mormons entered this region,
and has been frequently employed as interpreter
among the Indians, they are the offspring of a disaf-
fected portion of the Ute tribe "that left their nation,
about two generations ago, under their leader or chief,
Go-ship, whenc* their name Go-ship-utes, since con-
tracted into Go-shutes. Captain Simpson is disposed
ft Wlieve that they are thus derived, from the fact
that he noticed among them several Utes, who, while
claiming that they belonged to the Utes proper,
had intermarried with the Go-shoots and were living
among them.
These Go-shoots are few in number, not more,
probably, than two or three hundred, and reside
principally in the grassy valleys west of Great Salt
Lake, along and in the vicinity of Captain Simpson's
routes, as far as the Un-go-we-ah Range.
In addition to the Indians just mentioned as inha-
biting the Great Basin, should be mentioned^, the Py-
ute and the Washoe tribes, which, not being within
Dr. Hurt's jurisdiction, were not included tyf him.
The Py-utes, according to Major Dodge, "their
Indian agent in 1859, numbered at that date be-
tween six thousand and seven thousand souls. They
inhabit Western Utah, from Oregon to New Mexico;
their locations being generally in the vicinity of the
principal rivers and lakes of the Great Basin, viz.,
Humboldt, Carson, Walker, TrucMs, Owen's, Pyra-
mid, and Mono. They resemble in appearance, man-
ners, and customs the Delawares on our Missouri fron-
tier, and with judicious management, and' assistance
in agriculture. Their chief in 1859 M 'Won-a-
muc-ca (the Giver), and it was a portion of this tribe,
under this chief, who had been engaged just pre-
viously in the massacres in Western Utah. Their
la»gnage resembles in some words the Sho-sho-ne,
-"** it differs so much from it that Captain Simpson's
jjLUt* Pete, who spoke both Ute and Sho-sho-ne,
could not understand them. This tribe is frequen^f
confounded with the Pah-utes, with which they show
qnly a distant affinity.
The Washoe*, according to Major Dodge, numbered
in 1859 about nine hundred souls, and inhabit the
country along the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada,
from Honey Lake, on the north, to the Clara, the west
branch of Walker's River, a distance of one hundred
and fifty miles. They are not inclined to agricultural
pursuits, nor any other. advancement toward civiliza-
tion. They are destitute of all the necessaries to make
life even desirable. In 1859 there was not one horse,
pony, or mule in the nation. They are peaceable, but
indolent. In the summer they wander around the
shores of Lake Biglcr, in the Sierra Nevada, princi-
pally subsisting on fish. In the winter they lie
around in the artemisia (wild sage) of their different
localities, subsisting on a little grass-seed. The In-
dian vocabulary appended to Captain Simpson's re-
port shows that they are a distinct tribe, and in no
way assimilate with the Utes, Sho-sho-nes, or Py-utes.
The Indians all along Captain Simpson's routes,
from Great Salt Lake to Carson River, are of the
very lowest type of mankind, and forcibly illustrate
the truth which the great physicist of our country,
Professor Arnold Guyot, of the College of New Jersey,
has brought out so significantly in his admirable work,
"The Earth and Man," to w\t, (Ant (he nmfotir, relief, ami
relative jtoni/iim if the e.rwi <>f (he earth are intimately
coiiitectetl iri/h the <hrrl<ipment of man. These Indians
live in a barren, and in winter, on account of its
•iltitude, a cold, climate; ami the consequence is that
they are obliged to live entirely on rabbits, rats,
Ksards, snakes, insects, rushes, roots, grass-seed, efc.
They are more filthy than beasts, and live in habita-
tions which, summer and winter, are nothing more
than circular inclosures, about four feet huh, without
roof, made of the artemisia or sage hush, or branches
of the cedar, thrown around on the circumference of
a circle, and which serve only to break oflf the wind:
As the temperature in the winter must qt limes be
as low as zero, and there must fall a good deal of
snow, it will readily be perceived that jthey must
suffer considerably. Anything like a covered lodge,
or wick-e-up of any sort, to protect them from the
rain, cold, or snow, Captain Simpson did not see
among them. Their dress, summer and; winter, is a
rabbit-skin tunic or cape, which comes down to just
531
mow the knee; and seldom have they legtiris or moc-
casins. The children at the breast wefe perfectly
naked, and this at a time when overcoats w^re re-
quired by Captain Simpson's jmrty. ^The women
frequently appeared naked domi to the waist, and
seemed unconscious of any immodesty in thus ex-
posing themselves. !
The fear of capture causes these, people to live
some distance from the water, which they-bring in a
sort of jug made of willow tightly platted together
and smeared with fir-gum. They also make their
bowls and seed and root baskets in the a&Ae way ; a
species of manufacture quite common afcung all the
Indian tribes, and which Captain Simpson saw in his
Explorations of 1849, in the greatest perfection, among
lb* Navajos and Pueblo Indians of New; Mexico.
Captain Simpson describes, in his report, a visit fl
one of their hints, as they call their habitations, m
follows :
"Just at sunset, I walked out with Mr. Faust tfl
see some of these Go-shoots at home. We found, about
one and a half miles from camp, one of their habita-
tions, which consisted only of some cedar branches
disposed around the periphery of a circle about ten
feet in diameter, and in such a manner as to break off,
to the height of about four feet, the wind from the
prevailing direction. In this inclosure were a num-
ber of men, women, and children. Rabbit-skins were
the clothing generally; the poor infant at the breast
having nothing on it. In the center was a brass
kettle, suspended to a three-legged crotch or tripod.
In this they were boiling the meat Ave had given
them. An old woman superintended the cooking,
and at the same time was engaged in dressing an
antelope-skin. When the soup was done, the fingers
of each of the inmates were stuck into the pot and
sucked. While this was going on, an Indian, entirely
naked with the exception of his breech-cloth, came in
from his day's hunt. His largest game was the rat,
of which he had quite a number stuck around under
the girdle about his waist. These he threw down,
and they were soon put by the old woman on the fire
and the hair scorched. This done, she rubbed off the
crisped hair with a pine knot, and then, thrusting her
finger into the paunch of the animal, pulled out the
entrails. From these pressing out the offal, she
threw the animals, entrails and all, without further
cleaning, into the pot."
Jfr. Reese, Captain Simpson's guide, avers that he
las seen them roast their rats without n! any way
leaning them, and then eat them with gte'at relish.
The rats are caught by a dead-fall, madeqf a heavy
tone and supported by a kind of figure 4. ;They are
lso speared in their holes by a stick, turned up
lightly at the end and pointed; and witrf;ano.her of
pade-form at the end, the earth is dug away until
the animal is reached and taken.
532
The Go-shoots, as well as the Diggers, (constantly
arry about with them these instruments, Which, with
ihe bow and arrow and net, constitute jheir chief
means for the capture of game. The nets, ifiade of ex-
cellent twine fabricated of a species of flax wjiich grows
in certain localities in this region, are three feet wide
and of very considerable length. With tjiis kind of
net they catch the rabbit, as follows. A fence or bar-
rier made of the wild-sage bush plucked! up by the
' — ots, or cedar-branches, is laid across the 'paths of the
The rabbits are then driven from theinMir.) and, in
running along their usual paths, are intercepted by
the net and caught in its meshes. f
The only large game they have is the Antelope,
and this they are seldom able to kill. TIfeir mude of
taking him is as follows. They make a sort of trap
inclosure of a V-shape, formed by two iences of in-
definite lengths, composed of cedar-bnmdies, and con-
verging from a wide open mouth to a point. Within
the inclosure and near the vertex of the angle a hole
fcf dug, and in this the Indian secretes himself with
fefp jbow and arrow. The antelope, being driver
into the mouth of the trap, is naturally directed b
the fence on either side to make his escape at th
angle. Reaching this point, the Indian, whom h
has just passed, pops up from his hiding-place am
shoots him.
Their mode of starting a fire is certainly verj
primitive, and is described in Captain Simpson's jour-
nal of June 3d, as follows:
"On reaching our camping-place, which I call the
Middle Gate, I saw a naked Indian stretched out on
the rocks on an inclination of about twenty degrees.
He was so much the color of the rocks, that he escaped
our notice till we were right upon him. On being
aroused, he looked a little astonished to see so many
armed white men al)out him, but soon felt assured of
his safety by our kind treatment. He seemed par-
ticularly pleased when he saw the long string of white-
topped wagons coining in, and laughed outright for
joy. I counted twenty-seven rats and one lizard
lying about him. which he had killed for food. He
had with him his appliances for making fire. They
consisted simply of a piece of hard 'grease-wood' (so
called) about two feet long, and of the size or smaller
than one's little finger, in cross-section. This was
rounded at the butt. Then a second flat piece of the
same kind of wood, six inches long by one broad and
one-half thick. *This second piece had a number of
semispherical cavities on one face of it. With this
laid on the ground, the cavities uppermost, he placed
the other stick between the palms of his hands, and
with one end of the latter in the cavity, and holding.
and back till the friction would cause the
nder, which he had placed against the foot of the
iek in the cavity, to ignite. In this way I saw him
produce fire in a few seconds."
As illustrative of the character of these Indians,
and the kind of country to which they attach the
most value, the writer gives one more extract from
his journal of May 27 :
"An old Digger Indian has visited our- camp, and
represents that we are the first white persons he has
ever seen. He says there are a large number of Indians
living around, but they have run away 'from fear of
us. I asked him why he had not been . afraid. He
said he was so old, that it was of no consequence if
he did die. I told him to say to them that we would
be always glad to see them, and whenever they saw
a white man, always to approach him in a friendly
way, and they would not be hurt. He has been round
eating at the different messes, and at length had so
gorged himself as to be unable to eat more, until he
had disgorged, when he went aro^d agajin to renew
the pleasure. )
"I showed him my watch, the works of which he
looked upon with a great deal of wond&r. 'He said
he would believe what I told him about the magnetic
telegraph, the next time he was told it* -'He is at
least sixty years old, and sa\s he has never had a
chief. I asked him if his country was a good one.
fie said it was; he liked it a good deal better than
any other. I asked him why. Because, he said, it
bad a great many rats. I asked him if they ever
quarreled about their rat country. He said they
did. So it would appear that civilized nations fi
not the only people who go to war about fv-*
domain."
534
APPENDIX E
OBSERVATIONS ON NEVADA INDIAN TRIBES
BY GEORGE M. WHEELER IN 1869
All the Indians through Southern Nevada may be termed "MouDtain Indians," in contradis-
tinction to those that inhabit the valleys or plains, or live along the oceau-shore. The habits,
dispositions, and mental characteristics of all the Indians that I have encountered on the Pacific
Slope seem to be governed largely by the topography of the country and the principal articles used
as food, the latter undoubtedly having the greater effect
The mountain Iudians are more hardy, intelligent, shrewd, and cunning, generally going into
the valleys to plant and harvest, returuiug to their mountain-retreats after gatheriug their sleuder
crops. They make up the deficit in food from nuts and acorns, rarely eating roots. The well-known
Digger Iudians of the California valleys formerly subsisted in the main upon roots and plants, and
to them pine-nuts and acorns were a great luxury. They were and are a filthy, sluggish-minded,
disgustiug race. Certain other shore Indiaus, closely allied in geueral worthlessness of character
to the Diggers, subsist upon fish and any refuse or offal found along the shore, together with sea-
weed and various sea-roots and plauts. They inhabit the northern coasts of California and Oregon.
The mountain Indiaus of Nevada aud Idaho, as a general rule, have been eudowed by nature
with more of the civilized instincts than those found below the Colorado River; and, iu fact, it is
not unlikely that a provisional latitudinal distinction, modified by the form and exteut of the
drainage basins, may be made general iu its application to all tribes west of the Rocky Mountains.
With the development and population of couutries like Arizona, the ludian will become im-
pressed with the fact that warlike aggression or resistance will be futile : aud the submissive
Apache of a few years hence will be found to differ but little from the tame Ute aud Pah-Ute of to-
day.
Our guide and iuterpreter, Henry Butterfield, a thorough master of the Shoshone and Gosiute
tongues, succeeded in gaining a pretty accurate census of the "wickeups" at which the Iudians
were fouud at home. His estimate of those enumerated was very nearly two thousand five huu-
derd ; aud it is not unsafe to suppose that at least this number are permaneut iuhabitants of the
area surveyed.
THE SHOSHONES.
This tribe has rauged along the Humboldt for years, branching out here and there to the south
and east, and at other points to the north and west, but looking to the valley of the Humboldt aa
their base. They are quite numerous, and consist of as many as 5,000, all told. Their headquar-
ters is near Winneunuea, named after their old chief, still living. But few of these fellows were
seeu. Their habits and appearance are well known, as they can be noticed at any statiou along
the railroad, from Humboldt Wells to Wadsworth. They extend as far to the south as Tim-pah-
ute Mountain, and to the east as Ruby Valley. A party of some two hundred Indians, uuder the
leadership of a chief named Blackhawk, were tilliug the laud in Suake Valley, aud professed to be
Suakesor Shoshoues : wished to be peaceable, aud to receive agricultural implements. The chief,
thinking lie might effect something of this sort, returned with our party to the camp in Cave Val-
ley, aud then went into Hamilton to see the superintendent of ludian affairs.
GOSIUTES.
This is not a numerous tribe, consisting of not more than 400, with headquarters at Deep
Creek. They range no farther to the south than 38° latitude, nor to the east than Sevier Lake
Desert, confining themselves mainly to the mountains bordering oi Spring, Steptoe, Sierra, and
Gosiute Valleys. They differ in no material way from the Shoshoues, the language beiug similar,
and habits aud dispositions the same, always haviug lived at peace with each other.
535
Our first guide, Pogo, was a young buck takeu from this tribe, who accompanied us as far as
Patterson District. He was lazy and good-natured, possessed of more than ordinary ludiau intelli-
gence, and perfectly happy while with us, since he uas all the time well supplied with provisions.
The ludiau names of the different peaks, ranges, and natural objects have beeu changed when
possible to their English signification, since few of the former possess a claim even to euphony.
Big Horse is the name of the chief of the Gosiutes, and he, with quite a baud, was at Deep
Creek, to the north of the Snake range, and above our line of travel. Freshly deserted Indian
camps showed that they had ded at our approach, and we were told by white settlers that they
held the sohliers in the greatest awe and reverence.
THE PAHVAIs'TS
are quite a numerous tribe, living entirely iu Utah, and to the south and east of the Sevier
Lake Desert. Cutting across the Mormon settlements, in a northeasterly direction, we did uot
come immediately in contact with auy of their wick-e-ups, butour guide, Adabe, who went with 113
from Cave Valley to Preuss Valley and return, sighted the smoke of some of their camps, and paid
them a visit on our behalf. They did not seem desirous of a close acquaintance with the soldiers.
Their chief, Blackhawk, is a shrewd and warlike old fellow, aud when the Mormous will not give
him and his band all the meat that they wish, he immediately retires to the hills, declares war,
and levies contributions. I am told that in physical structure they are superior to most of the
Indians of the great interior basin, approaching the athletic qualities of the Mojaves. It is likely
that this statemeut should be taken with some caution.
Their language is uot understood by either the Suakes, Shoshones, or Gosiutes, the latter
supposed to bo branches of the great Snake tribe.
UTES OR TIEDES.
The (Jtes, Utabs, or Piedes, as they have sometimes been called, are a roving, treacherous
Indian. They are found from Pahranagat Valley to the mouth of the Virgin River as the
most westerly line of their country, extending to the north and east along the different lines of
Mormou settlements as high up as 38° north latitude, thence stretching out to the eastward as far
as the Grand Eiver, and bounded on the south and east by the Colorado proper.
Their number, all told, is variously estimated from three to five thousand; some six or seven
hundred were found along our route.
An old fellow by the name of Toshob was chief of these bauds on the Mnddy ; a wily, treacber-
cold-blooded old scamp, who was well known to have been the leader of the Indians that were
gaged in the "Mountain Meadow massacre," that horrible murder of helpless emigrauts, both
male and female, old and young. The details of this dreadful occurrence were gleaned here and
there, and, when fully known, for all coming history will stand out as one of the most disgusting
pictures of human baseness.
The Utes or Piedes cultivate the soil, are at war with no particular tribe, and, excepting the fact
that they are great thieves, and treacherous to a heightened degree, even for au Indian, do not differ
greatly from others of these mountain tribes. They have no hesitation to rob, plander, and mur-
der, provided they are not found out, while their sagacity teaches them the advantages to be gaiued
from the reputation of " good Indians." They have a most wonderful antipathy against Germans,
whom they can tell at a glance, and no one of this nationality can get past their habitations without
a good chance of losing everything he has in the way of personal effects. I know of no manner in
which to explain the above except that this tribe has beeu for long years at enmity with the Nava-
joes, who have been in the habit of crossing the Colorado and making inroads upon the Utes and
Tiedes, taking their stock, squaws, or anything else, aud then beating a hasty retreat. It is a
legend among these Indians that the Navajoes at one time captured a large German emigrant-
train, killing all the men and taking the women to their villages, and thereby created a changed
race of bad blood, they say ; and possibly in their own minds they thiuk that all their troubles with
the Navajoes have arisen iu consequence. These Utes or Piedes had killed two men iu a canon lead-
536
ing into one tbat we traversed from Meadow Valley to the Muddy settlements. These were travel-
ers with good horses. The Indians who were supposed to have been concerned had left their wick-
e-ups and fled.
PAH-UTES.
The Pah-Utes, or Water-Utes, are a tribe not differing in any marked way from the Utes, and,
like them, of strong physical build, a lively, bright, black eye, rather thin front face and more aqui-
'uie contour, bespeaking acuter mental characteristics than most of the Iudiansof the great mountain
.sin. Their eastern li mit is the western one of the Utes or Tiedes ; the Colorado bounds them on the
south, and to tbe north and west, the Great Death Valley of Southwestern Nevada, that almost extends
to and joins Death Valley proper in California. We found their wiek-e-up at Las Vegas Ranch,
at various points on the Spring Mountain range, and some few at Eldorado Cation and below,
in and about Cottonwood Island. There cannot be more than two thousaud in all, the princi-
pal chief of whom is Teroheruin. an honest, well dispositioned, chunky little mau, who seemed to
have but little authority outside of his own small number of wick-e-ups.
For the most part they are a wicked, saucy, and independent set. They have seen and mixed
with many whites, principal^- on the old emigrant road : know well the value of money, and have a
great desire for clothes and blankets. They make frequent pilgrimages, and always return well
laden with spoils, both in wardrobe and funds. They plant but little, liviug for the greater part on
pine-nuts, which are very plentiful, and by hunting, which around tliese mountains is better than
at any point along the route. By a little good management they could be collected together and
made a self-supporting people. No presents, so far as I could learn, have been made to any of
these Indians to the south 01*38° latitude, or Quiun's Canon, to which point it is understood that
the treaty made by Governor, now Senator, Nye, in 1803, extended.
It is hoped that the information at present gained, and which may be acquired by careful
attention on tbe part of the superintendent of Indian affairs for Nevada, will soon give to these
Indians the same annuities that others receive throughout the State : and it will have a great
effect in quieting not only them, but the apprehension felt by settlers who occupy, in small parties,
here and there, ranches, upon which the Iudiaus at auy time are apt to levy contributions.
Preliminary Report Upon A Reconnaissance Through Southern and Southeastern Nevada, Made in 1869, pp.
35-37.
537
APPENDIX F
EXCERPTS OF GEOLOGICAL DATA ON THE SNAKE MOUNTAINS
GATHERED BY THE WHEELER SURVEYS
The Snake range, on the border^ of Utah and Nevada, is the most
easterly of the high series that intervene between the desert depressions of
Great Salt Lake at the east and the Humboldt sink at the west ; it over-
looks all the ranges of Utah, to the Wahsatch. Its axis, which is exposed
for nearly the whole length, consists of quartzite and limestone, with a
limited amount of crystalline schists and granite. In the neighborhood of
Clifton mining district, the most northerly point visited, rhyolitic lavas and
syenite make up a great portion of the surface, but limestone masses are
visible toward the eastern flank of the range, with eastward dip. At Uiyabi
Pass there are slight exposures of limestone and sandstone, which indicate
an anticlinal structure; but a few miles south the mountain rises rapidly in
a single mass of westward-dipping strata. These are quickly replaced upon
the crest of the ridge by granite, which constitutes the high peaks imme-
diately east of Deep Creek Valley. The western base, however, at that
point shows stratified rocks with the same dip. South of Pleasant Valley a
portion of the range, locally known as Kern Mountains, has been greatly
disturbed, and perhaps presents a reverse dip ; but the interruption is only
a few miles in extent, and beyond, in the main Snake range, the westerly
dip is resumed, and continues for thirty miles, to Sacramento pass, a few
miles north of Wheeler's Peak, the highest summit of the range. The peak
appears to be the center of a fractured quaquaversal, the rocks upon its
flanks dipping from it, not merely to the east and west, but to the north
and south. The quartzite of its crest is covered at the north by the lime-
stone of the Sacramento mining district, and at the south by heavy lime-
stone beds; the base, at least, of the series belonging to the Silurian system.
The mountain is deeply scored by canons heading near the peak, and in the
debris brought down through these on the western side Mr. Howell found
granite boulders, but the portion of the range from which they were derived
was not visible from any of our lines of examination. In that part of the
range between the Sacramento district and the Kern Mountains, where the
structure is most regular, the principal mass of the mountain consists of
strata inclined to the west, but there are at the eastern base a few hundred
feet of rocks with opposed inclination.
539
The Schell Creek range, Nevada, has an altitude at "White's Peak,
(latitude 39° 15',) and for six or eight miles southward, of 10,500 to 11,200
feet The crest is remarkably acute, and is buttressed by lateral spurs,
between which are close, hopper-shaped valleys, that once contained very
small glaciers. The ice could have moved at most only two or three miles,
and the moraines, which are its only observed record, were pushed no lower
than 8,000 feet. A little farther south, (latitude 39°,) and in the next range
to the east, Wheeler's peak rises to a height of 12,000 feet, and bears upon
its eastern flank a moraine of the same character and at the same altitude
as those of the Schell Creek range, but of greater magnitude, and retaining
Alpine lakes. I did not myself visit the lakes, and indeed saw only the
lower side of the moraine, but, by the descriptions of Lieutenant Wheeler
and Mr. W. M. Ord, who ascended the peak in 1869 and viewed them from
above, I am persuaded that the waters are dammed, either by the moraine
I saw or by later formed moraines of the same glacier. No opportunity
was afforded to look for glacial phenomena on other sides of the peak, and
it is not improbable that they shall be discovered a few miles farther south
on the same range.
Gosi-ute and Kern Mountains are included under this head, as they
belong to the same line of uplift, and are in fact all parts of the same range.
Structurally the range is in part anticlinal and in part monoclinal. At
Uiyabi Pass and northward, for some distance, the range is anticlinal, but
from there southward to Pleasant Valley it is a monoclinal, dipping to the
west. At Pleasant Valley the structure again changes, and Kern Mount-
ains are anticlinal or quaquaversaL Thence southward to Sacramento Pass
the range is monoclinal again, with the dip as before to the west From the
pass southward the rocks form an anticlinal fold, the axis of which rises to
Wheeler's Peak, and then falls again, producing an elongated quaquaversaL
540
bi
a*
2
A short distance south of the peak the western half of
the anticlinal disappears, leaving the ridge a monoclinal,
with its bluff face to the west. Thus it will be seen we
have a series of anticlinals and monoclinals, following jj |
each other in quick succession. There is also in some ' g
places a local mingling of these and other systems, which I
it is not deemed advisable to note in a general descrip- J
tion like the present. Patches of rock, sometimes of con- |
siderable extent, with a reverse dip, were seen along the 2.
bluff bases of the monoclinals, but they are small in £.
amount and exceptional in character. The nucleus of %
the range is granite, which is exposed at many places, SF m
overlaid with quartzite, shale, and limestone. South of » §
Wheeler's Peak there is an exposure of 4,000 or 5,000 J ST.
feet of limestone of the usual bluish-gray color. Immedi- f
ately under this comes quartzite, with thickness unknown, y>
but probably not less, than 1,000 feet. This forms the 3
summit and slopes of the peak, but the deep cafions from |
the same penetrate the granite, as is shown by the bowl- £>
ders brought down in the wash. -
Four to six miles north of the peak is a high pass — $ g!
a depression in the profile of the mountain due to a cross- | g
fault, with the downthrow to the south. Fig. 98 shows Zs &
the structure at this point, the line of section being length-
wise of the range, and east of the axis of the anticlinal,
so that the beds represented have an easterly as well as
a westerly dip. This fault brings the granite well into
view, and exhibits its relation to the overlying quartzite and limestone.
From Sacramento Pass northward to the Kern Mountains the bluff east-
em side of the range presents limestone with fissile micaceous quartzite at
the base. The whole central portion of Kern Mountains is granite, and is
flanked on all sides with quartzite, shale, and limestone, which dip outward
at a high angle.
From Pleasant Valley to Uiyabi Pass the base of the range is granite,
overlaid and flanked on the west with quartzite and limestone, except at the
head of Deep Creek, and northward for a few miles, where the limestone
and quartzite have been worn away, leaving the bare granite. At Uiyabi
7?
-if f
<!:]
541
Pass there are from 200 to 400 feet only of quartzite between the granite
and limestone, which shows it much thinner than at Wheeler's Peak, and the
little evidence collected indicates a gradual thinning of the quartzite on this
range, from south to north. All of the limestone exposed doubtless belongs
to the same bed. The order of superposition is always the same — limestone,
frequently a little shale, quartzite, and granite. At Uiyabi Pass I estimated
the thickness of limestone at 3,000 to 5.000 feet. At Pleasant Valley the
same, while south of Wheeler's Peak, the exposure is apparently still greater.
The prevailing color is bluish-gray. It is everywhere more or less changed,
and much of it is very highly metamorphic. Only a few fossils were found,
but all indicate Carboniferous Age, and at Uiyabi Pass Fusulina cyllndrica
was among the number.
U S Army Engineer Department, Report Upon Geographical and Geological Explorations and Surveys West of
the One Hundredth Meridian, In Charge of First Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army Under
the Direction of Brig. Gen. A.A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army (Washington, Government Printing
Office, 1875). Vol. Ill - Geology, pp. 30, 240-42.
542
APPENDIX G
REPORT ON TRANSIT OF VENUS BY WILLIAM EIMBECK,
U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, DECEMBER 6, 1882
Lehman's Ranch, Nevada, December 7, 1882.
Sir: I beg leave to present the following report on tbo observations of the contacts at egress
made at A. S. Lehman's ranch, iu Nevada:
The geographical position of the station occupied was derived from a small triangulation
executed for the purpose of connecting the State boundary of Nevada and Utah with Jeff. Davis
Peak, a principal statiou of the geodetic survey of the thirty -ninth parallel of latitude, and the.
position of which depends upon the Coast Survey telegraphic longitude of San Francisco and
several of »he astronomical azimuths and latitudes observed iu connection with the geodetic
survey referred to.
The geodetic positions of Jeff. Davis Peak and the Transit of Venus station as resulting
from the held computations are as follows:
Latitude. Longitude.
Jeff. Davis Peak -f 3S° 59' 03". 00 + 114° 18' 47". 35
Transit of Venus station +39° 00' 34". 74 +114° 11' 04". 59
These may be regarded as reliable to within about 1" in latitude and 2" in longitude. What-
ever corrections tbe final adjustment of the triangulation may yield for the position of Jeff. Davis
Peak will apply in like manner to the position of the Transit of Veuus statiou.
The altitude of the latter station above sea-level is 1900 meters nearly.
The contacts were observed with a Steinheil refracting telescope of 5§ inches objective, using
the full aperture, and a magnifying power of 250 diameters. The excessive glare of the suu's light
was screened down to proper iutensity by a small piece of "London-smoke" glass attached to the
eye-piece. The focal adjustment of the telescope was made with precision by pointings upou the
larger planets at night, and again, finally, by pointings upon Venus itself on the day of the Transit.
The definition of the telescope thus focused was very satisfactory, notwithstanding the heating of
the eye-piece by continued pointing upon the sun. The telescope, although equatorially mounted,
was without a driving apparatus. It was kept properly pointed by means of the slow-motion
movement worked by hand.
On the morning of the 6th of December the sky was generally clear, yet there hung threat-
ening storm clouds upon the eastern horizon, shutting away from view the sun, and which on that
account was never seen until the planet had shifted fully a diameter upon his disk. The atmos-
phere at this time seemed much disturbed and undulated strongly. Fortunately, as the day
advanced matters changed greatly for the better, and by noon, as the great event of the day was
rapidly drawing near, all clouds had vanished, leaving nothing but a thin sheet of haze iu the
southern skies, not dense enough to impair the distinct, vision of the sun. At 17'' 15'" chronometer
time, the final pointing of the telescope was made, and the progress of the Transit uninterruptedly
watched until after occurrence of the third contact. There was now almost perfect calm, and as
the boiling of the atmosphere had well nigh entirely ceased the. distinctness and steadiness of the
images of both the planet and the sun were all that could be wished for. In fact everything
seemed to assure complete success. We were ready for the work.
The record times of the several phases noted are the following:
h. m. a.
n Id contact. At 17 17 30.0 contact rapidly Hearing.
IS 01.5 doubt — not yet.
IS 08.5 contact, cusps persistently separated.
IS 15.0 contact plainly passed— cusps distinct and steady.
543
IVlli contact. TLc phases of tins last contact were noted as follows, viz:
h. m. 8.
At 17 38 08.0 contact rapidly approaching.
3S 30.0 doubt — not yet.
3S 3G.5 then — last contact.
•°>rt 42.5 contact certainly passed; sun's limb undistortcd and persist-
ently complete.
This concluded the observations of the contacts at egress, the only ones visible at this station.
The times, as above noted, being in accordance with the face indications of sidereal chro-
nometer Dent 2147, require correction for error aud rate to reduce them to local sidereal time.
From Rtar transits, observed with 30 inch meridian telescope, Coast Survey No. 5, set up in the
meridian of the equatorial, the error of this chronometer was found to be:
h. m. wt. s.
December 3. At 21 20 face time = 4-1 51.20 from 4 stars.
5. At 23 00 face time = + 1 51.35 from 10 stars.
0. At 22 15 face time =4-1 51.33 from 0 stars.
The probable uncertainties of these determinations do not exceed about one-tenth of a
second. The running of the chronometer, it will be seen, was quite steady; assuming its rate
zero and correcting accordingly, and reducing at the same time also to mean time — the local
times of the principal phases of the Transit stand as follows:
Sidereal tiuio. Mean time.
ft: m. s. h. m. s.
Hid contact. 17 16 10.2 doubt— not yet 0 14 09.G7
1G 17.2 contact 14 10.05
IVtli contact. 17 30 3S.7 doubt— not yet 0 34 34.82
3G 45.2 contact 34 41.30
It is important to remark that during the critical moments the observer kept his attention
steadily fixed upon the progress of the Trausit aud announced the occurrence of the different
phases observed, viva voce, to an experienced recorder, Mr. B. Christensen, who noted aud recorded
the times in accordance with the face indications of the ch?ouometer.
As regards the "black drop" no such phenomenon as it has been pictured by observers
of former transits was seeu, nor even anythiug remotely resembling it. On the contrary, the
inner contact seemed to come about in a geometrical sort of way without disturbance or sur-
prise, but very slowly. It was surprising to me to fiud, on examining the record after every-
thing was over, that the lapse of time between the important phases as noted amounted to ouly
about seven seconds, for my impression was that the interval seemed much greater — three times
as great. I believe the observation of the contracts to be trustworthy aud entitled to coutidenee.
They were made under circumstances quite favorable, especially as regards state of the atmos-
phere. Only in the matter of screening down the sun's excessive light it was fouud as the tune of
inner contact nearcd that the. proper measure had been exceeded by neglecting to make allowance
for the lesser intensity of the sun's light at the limb. Unfortunately the peculiar arrangement
improvised for screening off the excess of solar light did not permit of correcting the mistake when
noticed without hazarding the whole of the observations. Owing to tlr's excess of screening, and
likewise perhaps to the exceeding slowness with which the contacts seemed to come along, it is
probable that I was late rather than otherwise in judging the momeiits of contacts. For these
reasons it is my judgment, after mature reflection, that the means of the times of doubt and contact
as noted may be regarded as representing more nearly the times of true geometrical contacts than
the single contact times as actually noted.
544
In order to ascertain the error of the menu time cbrouometer 2404, used by Mr. Marr, of my
party, the followiug comparisons with sidereal chronometer Dent 2147 were made:
h. m. 8. h. in. s.
December 6 : Sidereal IS 01 21.0 = 1 14 59.2) mean time.
(No. 2147) 22 56 11.0 = G 08 58.75 (No. 2404).
The errors of chrouometer 2404 on local mean time were therefore respectively + 17,n 37'.2 and
-|- 17"1 35'.0. Correcting Mr. Man's observations accordingly, his contact times expressed in
local mean time reduce to the following, viz :
h. in. s.
Hid contact = 0 14 07.0
IVth contact = 0 34 21.9
Both times several seconds earlier than as observed by myself, presumably in consequence of
the inferior telescopic power used by him. Mr. Marr's own report will be found appended.
It may be proper to state in conclusion that the Transit occurred whilst the party was still
engaged in packing dowu camp outfit and instruments from Jen°. Davis Peak and in storing them
at Lehman's Ranch, and rliat the contact observations herein reported did not interfere with nor
delay the regular work of the party nor cause extra expenses to the Survey.
The observations were made in conformity with the printed instructions issued by the
Transit of Venus Commission as nearly as the means at hand and existing circumstances
permitted.
Respectfully submitted by
WILLIAM EIMBECK,
Assistant.
Prof. J. E. Hilgard,
Superintendent United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C.
Lehman's Ranch, White Pine County, Nevada,
December C, 1882.
Annual Report of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1883, Appendix 16, pp. 376-78.
545
APPENDIX H
EXAMINATIONS OF WHEELER PEAK TRIANGULATION SITE
BY U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY PERSONNEL IN 1925, 1944, AND 1957
1925
WHEELER PEAK (White Pine County, Nev . ,W.E. ,18R2 ; W.K.,1925)--
On Wheeler Peak, the highest and most prominent mountain of the
Snake Range, on the W or higher prong of the double peak.
Station Is marked by a copper bolt leaded In a drill hole In
solid rook. It 1p also marked, a few Inches above the bolt, by a
drill hole In a flat etone secured In poeltlon by the masonry foun-
dation built for the Instrument. The station Is nearly surrounded
by a rlngwall of rocks. Three drill holes In solid rock are Just
outside the rlngvall at the following distances from the station:
2.UO meters (7-9 feet), N; 2.60 meters (S.5 feet), E: and 2 . TO me-
ters (7.9 feet), SW. The vertical-circle station, nleo surrounded
by a rlngwall, Is 57.75 meters (l?9-5 fe«t) E of the station.
Station Is beet reached from Baker, Nevada, by road to Lehman
Cavee National Monunpnt, thence by trail and on foot to station.
1944
(E.H.B. ,1944) — Station was recovered and all rnar'^a found tn
be In good condition. Reference marks 4 and 5 and an atlnmih nark
were established. At this time there Is no masonry ftiupfaX. in'« v«r
the mark. A wood stand 2. 33 meters In height was used for •■•.» k.
eervatlons. The rlngwall of rocks around the station Is stll' \n
good condition but the wall that was once around the vertical -<•< -rle
station has been demolished and no measurement or direction we*
taken to it. The drill holes were found to be In boul 1ere In or
Just outside of the wall; they appeared to be Insecure and nay
have been moved. The large calrne on the E and W ends of the
ridge appeared to be in very good condition.
Wheeler Peak le the higher and W of two, there being a deep
gash between. The peak le located in the Nevada National Eorep*
and Is about 5 miles W of the Lehman Caves National Monument.
Station Is a copper bolt leaded In a boulder or a piece of
broken bedrock projecting about 3 Inches above the general eur-
faoe. The bolt extends about 1 inch above the boulder, has a
cross marked on the top, and is not stamped. It Is approximate-
ly in the oenter of the rlngwall which Is about 11 feet In diame-
ter and 3 to 4 feet high.
Reference mark 1 Is a drill hole in a boulder. It 1« about
1 foot lover in elevation than station mark and is Just out.rMe
the rock wall.
Reference mark 2 1b a drill hole in a bouiiler. u le a(
about the same elevation as the station mark and Is juet outjlde
the rock wall.
Reference mark 3 1b a drill hole In a boulder. It is a',. out
1/2 foot lower in elevation thar. the Btation mr -i: < nd le Juet
outelde of the rock wall.
Reference mark 4 le a bronze referent dlaK „ft in outcrop-
ping bedrock about flush with the grounc. It ia aLout 1 foot
PEAKrNo\*iS5"0n th*n the Bt*tl5fl Lr'*rk "in<1 l8 "t^Ped "WHEELER
Reference mart 5 In ji >r,ze reference disk Bet In outcrop-
ping bedrock aocut flush with the ground. It 1b abcut 1 foot
lower in elevation than the station mark and is stamped "WHEELER
Azl&uth mark la a bronze azimuth disk set In a sharp 2-lnoh
depression ir. a boulder and le stamped "WHEELER PEAK 1944 ■ It
la 5 feet ENE of a 3-foot cairn.
To reach station from Baker, go S on o»ir. road for 0 8 mile
to a road leading right and a elgn reading "Lehman Creek Forest
Cam„ .turn right and continue for 3.4 mile., keop right and con-
tinue for 0.15 mile to a right fork. Take right fork and continue
Tor 0.5 mile to a elgn reading "Nevada Rational Forest Boundary'
continue for 1.4 miles, keep right and continue for 0.1 mile to '
the entrance to Lehman Cavea National Monument. Keep etralght
ahead for 0.3 mile to a picnic area, keep right and continue for
547
0.6 mile to a T-Junctlon, turn left and oontlnue for 2.0 mile* to
• picnic area, keep right and continue for 1.1 miles on a (.rail
road tc the end of truok travel. From here various Forest fcer-
vice signs point the way up a well marked trail to Stella Laie
which le at the base of the peak and from this point the peak
stands out sharply to the 8.. From the lake hike W up to the top
of the ridge and then to the left on a distinct trail leading
directly up to the peui: and the station. The ailmuth mark Is to
the left of the trail, about 29 paoes, In a small saddle Just be-
fore the last sharp climb to the station. The position on the
trail has been marked by a cairn.
OBJECT
MUHPfflf
R.M. 3
BV
R.M. 5
wsv
Cairn
wmr
Atlmuth Mark
NV
Calm
N
R.N. 1
N
R.M. k
I HE
R.M. 2
ESI
DISTANCE
DIRECTION
alters feet
0»00'00»0
2.1403 7-890
i+6 13
<, 3i+6 12.625
69 58 18
73 paces
102 31 17
1/2 mile
lljl 39 1+7-9
2 miles
167 09 1+0
2.1495 8. 179
6.9W . •'89
183 12
252 23 "+1
2.628 6.^0
300 10
1957
MM of statloD: «HrJ,l.-.h riAK
uiitiiiiid si «,t ' ltir 1882 st.t. : Nevada
lacotarad 17 »halter R. Helm i,«r:19i7' count/: shite fine'
Ditilltd atateswat aa to taa fltaaaa of lo« orlflaal easorlftloa. laoledLae svka fowaS, afawlnsv efcweaa eaSa,
and ottar partlaeat facta:
Station recovered as described and all marks found In good condition. The three
drill holee In bouldsrs «ar* recovered and appear to be insecure and »»/ a»»a been
moved. The rlngwall of rocks around the station and the two large cairns on the eaet
and nest end of the peak are in good condition. A couplet* deecrlptloc followe.
Station Is located on (heeler Peak, the highest and aost prcaminent mountain oX tew
Snake Range and on the west ana highest prong of ths double peak. It Is, airline,
about 10 miles west southwest of Baker aod i allee west of the Unman Cavee National
Momawnt.
Station is reached as followsi froa the U.S. Post Office in baker, go west on a .
blacktop roaa, towards ths Lshaan Caves, for *.S ailes to a sign " Leoaan Creek, Cass
Ce-ounu* 2 "j turn right as per sign and go 2.6 mile* to a dla right fork ana a sign
" anseler Peak 7 "1 turn right on the track road and go 1.1 allee to the end of the roaa
and ths start of ths trail. Proa here pack west u? a distinct trail for about U allee te>
Stella +«k* which is at the base of ths peak which stands out sharply to the acuta. rVa
the lake pack northwesterly up the trail that curve* around to the left ana follow) toe
Bain ridge southerly and dirsetly to the a'.aticn ani b Is about 2 ailes- Tbe aalauth aark
is to the left of the trail in a snail .*.dis just before the last sharp cliab ve tew
station and" aarkeo by a large sain . Tla* oX peek le about 4 1/2 hours • The last eae> w>
at jtella Lake. Horses can be taken to ihe last uhi-rj clu.it- u L..e .uuwi whicn is just
beyond the axiiiuth mark.
station mark, unstamped, la a copper bolt leadea in u drill hole in a boulder about
2 feet square and projects 3 inchee. The bolt extends 1 inch above the boulder and has a
cross marked on top. It le approximately In the center of the rlngwall of rocks which Is
about 11 feet in diameter and 3 to u feet hign.
Reference mark number 1 ie a drill hole In a bouluer 2 by 1 feet anu about 1 foot
lower than the station. It Is 1 foot outside the rock wall.
Reference mark number 2 is a drill hole In a boulder 18 by lu inches, projecting 3
inchee and is at about the same elevation ae the station. It j.e 1 foot outside the rock
wall.
Reference mark number 3 Is a drill hole in a bouluer i by 1 feet, projecting 1 loot
and about 1/2 foot higher than the station. It ie 1 foot outside the rock wall.
Reference mark number 4, stamped " AHJultM rijUt NO t, l<iUI* ", is a standard alak
cementeu In a drill hole in outcropping bedrock 3o by 8 inchee exposeu, projecting 1 foot
and about 2 feet lower than the station. It is 12 feet outaiue the rock wall.
Reference mark number 5, stamped " ,iHfciiL&H rtAa NO 5 W44 " ie a standard disk
cemented in a drill hole in outcropping beurock flush with the ground and at about the
earae elevation aa the station. It is 3 feet outside the rock wall and marked by a 1 foot
cairn.
Ailmuth mark, stamped » HiLtdMi PtAK 19U ", is a standard disk cemented in a drill
hole In a 2 Inch depression in a boulder 2 by 3 feet and projecting 1 foot. It is about
60 feet east of the trail and a 3 foot cairn and 3 feet east of a 2 foot cairn.
548
. 1957" x
_,
OUJtCT'
U»«tJ '
uI6"I*WCt (meteraj
U I RUCTION
UTAH NtVAuji
lb 5 1944'
0
00 00.0'
R.M. #2'
ISjji'
8.587'
2 .bl8 '
21
33'
BJi. #3'
S*'
7.888'
2.403'
127
40 '
H.M. #5
Hoi!'
12.616'
3.84b'
150
18 L4
C»lrn'
tfN«-
255'
182
45'
Ailmuth llu-k
' N«'
appro.*..
1 mile'
221
5b 37.6
Ctlm '
NN«'
appro*.
2 miles'
247
20 23.0
R.M. #1-
N '
8.193'
2.498'
262
35'
R.M. §k'
ijtfc.
22.784'
b.944'
332
38 03'
Cairn '
*Na'
apprax.
1 mile'
336
34 02.0"
Cairn
r
345
342
47 '
1944'
UTAH NtVAUA
165 ' .
0
00 00.0
U.M. #2'
c^Jt
8.b20'
2.b28'
20
27
Ml. #3'
aid
7.890'
2.403''
126
30
IJi. #5'
*5»"
12.b25'
3.84b"
150
15 01
Cairn'
«N*'
78 p«o»«-
182
48 00"
aalautn Mark
- HJ-
1/2 mil*"
221
56 31.3'
Cairo *
N"
2 fflll*s'
247
<:6 23
BJi. #1-
U "
8.179'
2.495
263
29-
8J». #4'
jua'
22.789'
b.944"
332
40 24'
Cairn'
336
33 56-
Cairn'
115 pacat'
342
44 52 '
OaUht of itandi 1.39
■tra."
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, "Horizontal Control Data," July 1965.
549
APPENDIX I
LAWS OF WHITE PINE MINING DISTRICT
OCTOBER 10, 1865
Tiirspay, October 10th, 1865.
A company of miners met on the above day for
the purpoee of form in k a dutnot. The meeting
wan called to order and Robert Morrell wm nomi-
nated to not aft President.
Motion made and carried that this district be
known «u> W<fc te Pine IMstrict— bounded on the
north by the Red Hills, and running from thence
sooth to a point where tho mountain runs Into it
foot-hill: from tbeooe eaet, 12 Miles from thenrr;
from thence north, and from tbenoe west to the
plaoe of beginning: the distriot being twelve milts
square.
Thomas J. Murphy wm nominated to act as Re-
corder for the district, and was duly elected Re-
corder of White Fine District for a term of twenty-
four months from date.
On motion, the following By-Laws were presented
and approved:
First— The Recorder shall go on the ground and
record all claims, for which he will be allowed one
dollar per name, after which bo mine can be re-
located, bat belongs forever to the parties whose
names are recorded — I Amended ]
Seeond— There shall be an election for a new
Heeerder on the 10th of October of every second
year, who shall be in office as Recorder for two
years, unless by death removed, or by other rca
sons, when a notice signed by fifty of the miner* of
the district can call a meeting, published by a
notice posted 30 days in the district, and advertised
f >r 30 consecutive days in the Reese River papers.
—[Amended]
Third— It shall be the dnty of the Recorder to
keep a suitable set of book*, or a book, a full and
truthful record of the proceedings of all public
meetings; to plaoe on record all claims put on
notice or brought to him for record, when suoh
claim* shall not interfere or afeot the rights or
interests of prior locators, recording the same in
order of their date. It shall be the duty of the
Reoorder to keep his books open at all times to the
inspection of the public, tie shall also have the
power to appoint a deputy to act in his stead. It
shall be the duty of the Recorder to deliver to bis
successors in office all books, records, papers, etc.,
belonging to or pertaining to his office.
Fourth— AH examinations of the records roust
be made in the full presence of the Recorder or his
deputy. v
Fifth— Notice of a claim or location of mining
ground by any individual, or by a Company, on tile
in the Recorder's office, shall be deemed equivalent
to a record of the same.
Sixth— Each claimant shall be entitled to hold by
location 200 feet on any lead in the district, with all
the dips, spurs, angles, offshoots, outcrops, depths,
with variations, and all the mineral and other val-
uables therein contained. The discoverer of, or lo-
cator of a new lead being entitled to one claim ex-
tra for discovery.
Seventh—The looator of any lead, lode or led*e
in tho distriot rfhallbe entitled to bold on each side
of his lead, lode or ledge, located by him, or them,
one hundred feet. But this snail not be construed
to mean any distinct or parallel ledge within two
hundred feet, other than the oneorigtaally located.
Eighth— All locations shall be made by a written
notice posted upon the ground.
Ninth— Every claim located by individuals or
company shall be recorded within 14 days alter the
da'e of location.— [Amended 1
551
Tenth— The Recorder «h*ll he aUiwed M cmU
Kr name for every dwbi on an abstract of record
rnuhed by biro.
Eleventh— The Recorder or his deputy is net re-
quired to reside constantly In the district.— | Aaead
ed.]
Twelfth— These law* eannot be amende j, altered
or repealed for two years.
Thirteenth— These laws shall take enect ow end
after the 10th day of Oo'ober, 1865.
AMENDED LAWS, WHITE PINE MINING DISTRICT,
JULY 20, 1867
Kkcordrr's Ovvicr, Mohawk Canon,
White Pink Mininu LMsr.,
July 20 ii, 18b7.
}
Pursuant to a call, Istued by the Recorder, the
miners of White Pine Mining District met at the
Recorder's Office at Mohawk Canon, on Saturday,
July 20th, 1867, fer the purpose of electing a Re-
corder and amending the by- Laws of said district.
On motion -made and seconded, 11. Wood-on was
chosen Chairman, and A.J. Leathers, Deputy Re-
corder, acted as Secretary.
The following amendments to the By-Laws were
submitted and adopted: ggg
First— The Recorder shall bs allowed fifty cents
per name for recording, instead of one dollar.
Second— When a claim is located, and the proper
notice put on it, there shall be allowed ten days to
file a notice for record, and thirty days additional
time, within which the proper amount of work
must be done on the ledge.
Third— All locations already reoorded shall hare
two days' work done on them for every looation on
<>r before the first day of February of each year,
which work shall hold good until the 20th of July
of the same year, and all locations made hereafter
shall have the same amount of work done on them
within forty days after locating them, which work
shall hold good for one year frcin the dxto of the
rocord of tuoh work.
Fourth— Any location having the necessary
amount of work done on it, as in the previous arti-
cle, shall have the same surveyed and the work re-
oorded by the Recorder, within ten days after said
work is done, and the Recorder shall receive two
dollars for his services to survey and record the
same.
T J£ilth-r Any olaim-upon which the necessary work
is not done tjy the first of February shall be subject
to re- location.
6ixth— Any claim, having the necessary work
done upon them within three months previous of
the adoption of these by-laws shall be considered
as having done work to bold for one year from this
date, the same being duly recorded as per article
fourth.
Seventh— The Recorder shall have the privilege
of absenting himself from the district, but shall
have a deputy appointed to attend to his business
during such absenoe; and in cafe of resignation, re-
moval or death of the Recorder, the deputy shall
immediately give ten days' notioe, by £»««&•»
written notices at three conspicuous places in the
district, that an election will be held for Recorder,
stating time and place, when a majority of the
miners present shall elect to fill the vaoanoy for the
unexpired term, and until suoh ofiioer be qualified
the daontv shall act an Recorder.
552
Eighth -The Rtoorder shall, upon the written
application ol five ininera, call a speoial meeting of
the miner* of the district, when it shall require a
majority of the miners cf the district to transact
any busintM; but at the annual meeting on the
2utn July of eaoh year, a majority of the miners
present shall have power to treaeaot any basinets
ooroing before the meeting.
Ninto— Work done upon any portion of a loca-
tion phall be deemed as having been done for the
benefit of the whole of said location, except in case
as stated hereinafter,
Tenth— No person shall have the privilege of
participating in any meeting except bona fide
miners of the distriot ; and no person shall be ooa-
sidered a miner unless he has a olaiui recorded and
worked accorded to the by-laws.
Eleventh— In ca*e where a portion of a Company
refuse to do the necessary amount of work to hold
their claim, after being notified by placing a
written notice on the Recorder's office tor twenty
days, and the other portion of the Company wish
to work enough to hold their part of said claim,
they shall give notice in writing of their intention
to the Recorder, and designate what part of tbe
claim they wish to hold, and hare the work re-
corded for that part of the claim, and the balance
of said olaim shall be subjected to re-location if
the laws are not complied with.
twelfth— The Recorder's term of ofnee shall toe
one year, or until his successor is qualtned.
Thirteenth— All previous by-laws, or parts of
by-lawn, conflicting with these by-laws, are hereby
repealed.
Daily Alta California, February 8, 1 869.
553
APPENDIX J
ROLE OF CHINESE IN CONSTRUCTION OF WEST AND EAST
DITCHES AT OSCEOLA
Although there is no documentation attesting to Chinese involvement in the construction of
the West and East ditches at Osceola, it is likely that they formed a portion of the work
crews on the projects. The first group of several hundred Chinese to enter present-day
Nevada had been imported in the late 1850s to dig a canal from the Carson River to Gold
Canyon. Later during the construction of the transcontinental railroad large numbers of
Chinese were imported to serve as laborers. After the railroad was completed in 1869,
some Chinese drifted into the various mining towns that were established as a result of the
White Pine mining rush and its aftermath. They sought employment among the occupations
open to them: cooking, laundering, wood-cutting, water-carrying, vegetable gardening, and
produce peddling. Other Chinese took employment on ranches, performing manual labor,
cooking, and sheepherding chores. A few Chinese became merchants or acquired mining
claims, the latter generally in the less desirable locations of the mining districts. Chinese
miners bought a substantial number of mining claims at Osceola in 1877.
Throughout the late nineteenth century the number of Chinese in White Pine County was
small. Census statistics indicate that there were 292 (4.1%) Chinese in the county in 1870,
107 (4.0%) in 1880, 46 (2.7%) in 1890, and 31 (1.6%) in 1900.
Osceola was one of the towns where Chinese settled after gold was discovered in 1872.
Here they engaged as cooks, launderers, and miners, while a few owned donkey trains to
haul ore and wood to the stamp mills. Others would undoubtedly help construct the West
and East ditches in the 1880s.
The Chinese lived apart from the rest of the community of Osceola, most living in hovels
or subterranean dens excavated in the hillside overlooking the town. There they adhered
to their traditional way of life. According to one writer, the Chinese quarter in the mining
towns such as Osceola was readily recognizable by its "neat storehouses, curious trinkets,
grewsome smells of doubtful meats and packed dormitories, and the one pervading sickly
odor of burning opium." There was a separate Chinese cemetery at Osceola, but the
bodies were later exhumed and returned to China.
Merrifield, "Nevada, 1859-1881", pp. 29-31, Read, White Pine Lang Syne, pp. 157-58; Ward Reflex, September
20, 1877; and White Pine Daily News, April 18, 1885.
555
APPENDIX K
ENTRY FOR OSCEOLA GRAVEL MINING COMPANY IN
ASSESSMENT BOOK, WHITE PINE COUNTY, 1891
Possessory claim in and to the following described property
Goods, wares, and merchandise $4,000
6 work horses 300
2 stock horses 50
4 wagons 200
Hydraulic pipes, etc. 2,500
Spring Valley water ditch with flumes (Value) $10,000
Snake Valley water ditch (20 miles in length
with flumes) (Value) $10,000
One 10 stamp quartz mill and all machinery
and buildings situated 5 miles north
of Osceola
Saw mill on Mount Moriah
All buildings at the hydraulic mines,
consisting of boarding house, dwelling
house, office, machine shop, blacksmith
shop, stable, and corrals with electric
lights (Value) $5,250
Ben Lehman Ranch - 320 acres of land with
improvements situated in Snake Valley
Value of land $220
Value of improvements $180
Williams Ranch - 160 acres, no water - Value $100
Willards Ranch - 1 60 acres, no water - Value $50
Spencer House in Osceola - Value $200
Store and warehouse in Osceola - Value $400
Hanigan Cabin and lot in Osceola - Value $30
Trigaskas Stable in Osceola - Value $50
Matson House in Osceola - Value $1 00
Total Value $34,630
File No. 341 - Tungsten Mining District, Nevada Mining District Collection, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology,
University of Nevada, Reno.
557
APPENDIX L
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE TUNGSTEN MINING AND MILLING COMPANY'S
TUNGSTEN PROPERTY AT TUNGSTEN, NEVADA, MARCH 7, 1912
Location
This property is looated fifty miles southeast of 71y, Nevada
on the oast side of Spring Valley and the west slope of tft. feeler.
There is a good wagon road between the mine and Ely; this being the
nearest railroad point. The average elevation of the camp is 8000
feet. Just above the oamp on Mt. Wheeler there is an abundance of
timber for all raining and construction purposes.
Equipment
The present equipment consists of, one air compressor of
four drills capacity, four 2-3/4 inch drills, one 50 ton concen-
trating plant, one steam plant, one water power plant (each of the
latter being of sufficient horse power to run both the oonpressor
and mill), an office, mess house and bunk houses enough to accomodate
35 or 40 men. All of the above is of g0od construction and in first
class condition. The mill is well adapted to the ore,- made a good
saving of values during the time it wus running, and is a good
Piece of construction throughout. The water power plant can be run
during the summer months only. Probably six months out cf the
twelve. The first one and one quarter miles of the flume is an
open ditch and this fills nth snow and freeze during the winter,,.
£C0l0£X
The whole ar£».'> r«nna4i>*. ~**
-re. consists of a very regular grade of rather
fine grained granite. The percentage of mica i
s very small and
559
it is always muscovite. Gaping this granite higher up on
lit. Wheeler, and dipping at such an angle &hat 100 foot less
erosion would have left it over ths entire area, there is a large
body of quartzite. It seems to me that this fact nay have had an
important bearing on the ore deposition, to be mentioned later.
The granite body i3 out by nine (known) parallel veins.
Their strike is about N - 70 - E and their dip 70° to the north.
These veins are all of about the same size, having average widths
of about three feet. The vein material i3 a clean, white, hard
quartz and i3 identical in all the veins. The tungsten ore occurs
in the veins as hubnerite (tungsten with manganese). Specimens of
schelite (tungsten with calcium) have been found near surface but
only in very small quantities. The hubnerite occurs in the iuartz
in one or more stringers (usually several) with the best one on the
hanging wall. All nine of thj veins have traces oT ore on surface,
much the best showing however is on the so called Hubnerite Vein;
which has received moot of the development work. The 3econd b03t
showing being on the Side Issuo Vein which has received a little
development.
Development Work
The development work done on the Hubnerite Vein consists
of 1200 feet of drifting and 300 ft", of raises. The location of al
of this work is shown on the enclosed profiles (Ho. 2). The
development on the Side Issuo Vein consists of a cross cut tunnel
driven to the vein and a raise on the vein from there to surfiaoe,
a distance of 80 feet. At the tumiel level the vein is only
560
a stringer. Going up tho raise it gradually increases in width
until it is 2j> feet wide at surface. It shows no values except
in the first 25 ft. from surface, however. (No map of this)
The result of the development has been discouraging. You
will note from the profile that they have gone through the ore into
a barren zone in five different places as follows -
Main Tunnel, Hub Tunnel, Shaft D and Upper Tunnel on the
Hubnerite Vein and in the one raise on the Side Vein.
At no point developed does the ore extend more than 50 feet below
surface. I have drawn in this ore zone, in yellow, on the profile
map. The white background denotes the 3toped portion and the
dark the un3toped. I have figured five blocks of ore, i e,
A, B, C, D and E, which are also designated on the profile, I
have obtained the following tonnages.
Ore in Siftht
Block A - - - - - 1300 tons
B 290 "
1590 tons in sight
Probable Ore
Block C - - - - - 610 tons
n D 750 "
E 1000 w
2360 tons probable ore.
2360
1590
3950 total ore in sight and
probable ore.
At 50 tons per da;/ thio amount would run the mill but 7 9 days.
To me it would not seem advisable to start the raill fcr so 3hort
a run.
561
The outcrop of the vein between Tunnel P. and the Upper
Tunnel is as goo J as in the other portions. In case it should be
the same width and depth upon development, it would give an
extra tonnage of about 7500 tons. This seems te be the outside
limit of ore contained in the surface zone of the vein. To
summarize it oonsists of the follov/ing -
1590 tons in sight
2360 " probfc'ole ore.
7500 " undeveloped possible ore.
11450 total possible ore from surface zone.
Costs.
I have gone over alltthe conditions quite? carefully
and have figured that the 4050 tons of "ore in Bight" and "probable
ore" could be mined, milled and the concentrates delivered
at New York at a cost of $4.10 per ton by water power, or $5.00
per ton by atcarc pov/cr.
From mill records the ore taken out of the nine averaged
2.40/£ tungsten. I think vve are safe in usinr: the oaice value for
the above ore. Thoir milling gave them an extraction cf 90f>.
The present quotations on tungsten ore delivered in Now York, and
of 00/' grade (which can be obtained at th^ mill) is £6.35 per
unit. This gives us 2.40;' x 90f* ■ 2.16;'.' extraction value.
2.16 x §6.75 =» "|14.53 extraction value per ton.
$14.58 extraction value
4.10 total oo3te using water-power
$10.48 probable profit per ton using water power.
$10.48 x 4850 tons * £50,828.00 probable profit using water power.
562
t'14.58 - extraction valuo
5 .00 - total coat usino; steam
£ 9.58 - probable profit p^r ton usinp; 3team.
£ 9.58 x 4650 tons =.$46,463.00 - probable profit using steam.
I have figured that by moans of an inclined raise about
60 feet below surface, (and parallel to it) and with vertical
raises to surface at intervals of 80 ft. along it, that the
ground between Tunnel E and the Upper Tunnel coal.', be developed
for about $25,000. if this work showed up th:; 7,500 tons of
ore as estimated above, it would give a development cost per ton
of ?<£5,GC0 j- 7,500 tons = $3.23 per ton.
Using the same total costs and values as before we have -
v 4.10 - total costs (without development) using water power
5. 33 - development costs
| 7.43 - total costs on undeveloped ore ■ " n
$14.58 - extraction value
7.43
$ 7.15 - probable profit per ton " " "
$ 7.15 x 7,500 tons = £53,625.00 - probable profit using water power
f 5.00 - total cost3 (without development) using steam
3.53 - development costs
Z 8.33 - total costs on undeveloped ore " "
$14.58
8.33
& 6.25 - probable profit per ton " "
t 6.25 x 7,500 tons = $44,062.50 - probable profit us in:' steam.
C5C,828.00 - profit on ct 2 in sight and probable ore using water po>
4' 53 ,625.00 - profit figured on undeveloped ore using water power
;■ 104, 453. 00 - total profit using water power.
C'46,463.00 - profit on ore in sight and probable ore using steam
v44 ,062.00 - profit figured on undeveloped ore using steam
£90,525.00 - Total profit using 3 team.
563
This covers all the surface possibilities of the v sin. The figures
are mush better than I expected them to be when "I sent you the
telegram on March 6th. I would call your attention to facta that if,
the undeveloped part of the veim did not prove as good as expected,
if I have been misinformed as to the values, or if the management
were not' first class, that these profits would not be realized".
Before any investment is made the ore values, especially, should
be gone into more thoroughly. On the other hand I think the above •
i3 a fair estimate of what the owners may expect .
My advice would be to start the inclined raise at once,
using steam power for the air drills. If this wore pushed as rapidly
as possible it would be far enough ahead by June first so that the
mill could be started on w&t $r power with a reasonable assurance
that it could be kept going all summer. Our total estimate of
11,450 tons would keep the mill running 230 days. Whatever ore
was left in the fall could either be run out with steam po.ver or
held over until the following spring.
whether or not it would be advisable to do any deep work,
to determine if there are ore bodies below the surface zone I
would rather leave entirely to Mr. Spurr.
I am told tnat at a similar deposit in Boulder, CJolo.
they went through a deep barren zone and then came into the ore
again. I have had no experience in the matter.
During the time that other work is being carried on the
Hub funnel coul-3. bo driven 1000 feet along the vein at a cost of
about £8,000. It would seem that this would cut any lower ore bodies
that might be there.
Respectfully yours,
(signed) If. B. Huston.
File No. 341 - Tungsten Mining District, Nevada Mining District Collection, Nevada Bureau of Mines and
Geology, University of Nevada, Reno.
564
APPENDIX M
LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL MONUMENT
HISTORY OF WATER RIGHTS
Prepared by L. S. Spaulding, Region Four
September, i960
About the year 1869 A. S. Lehman established a ranch and built a house
near a running stream (Lehman Creek) on the eastern alluvial fan of
the Snake Range three miles west of the present town of Baker, Nevada
and two miles east of a large cave, discovered at a later date by Mr.
Lehman. Mr. Lehman made use of water from a big spring a mile above and
west of his house and constructed a ditch to convey the water to his
land. The spring became known as "Lehman Spring," sometimes called
"Lemay Spring" or "Lerray Spring," and now known as "Big Spring." By
1878, during which year a public land survey was made of the Snake
Valley, several families were living in the vicinity. Besides the
A. S. Lehman house, located in Section 12, T13, R69E*, MDM, the B.
Lehman and Baker houses were located at the present site of Baker,
Nevada and the Gandie house was a mile south • 2
About the year 1886 or 1887 the Osceola Placer Mining Company purchased
water rights held by ranchers on many of the streams on both the east
and west sides of the Snake Range for the purpose of conveying water
to the vicinity of Osceola, Nevada townsite for mining purposes. Presumably,
rights to Lehman Creek held by Lehman and others were included with the
purchases. In 1888 the East Side Ditch, 18-1/4 miles long, diverting
water from Lehman Creek and from other streams to the north was constructed.
For a period of two or three years the company used water for placer gold
mining after which time use of the ditches ceased. 3
In May, 1887, one year prior to construction of the East Side Ditch,
A. S. Lehman filed on sources of water in the Lehman Creek drainage
below the anticipated point of taking by the mining company. One filing,
dated May 2, 1887 and recorded in Book 3^, page 229 of the records of
White Pine County was for twenty- five miner's inches of water from Cave
Spring and one hundred inches of leakage water to be taken from Lehman
Creek below the proposed Osceola Mining Company ditch. Another filing,
made on the same date and recorded in Book 3^ at Page 230, was for five
hundred inches of water from "Lerray Spring" (Lehman or Big Spring).
The first filing was for water to be used for agricultural purposes on
Lehman ' s 'Cave Ranche" in unsurveyed Section 15, a tract of land including
the. cave. Immediately after filing his notices, Mr. Lehman constructed a
ditch (Lehman Ditch) from Lehman Creek starting at a point about 400 yards
northwest of Cave Spring running past Cave Springs, the waters of which
were added to the ditch, and running to the "Cave Ranche" in Section Vj'
The second filing made by Mr. Lehman in 1887 was made to record rights to
water of Lehman Spring (Big Spring) which he had been using on his land
in Sections 12 and 13 since 1869.1
565
During the period 1&J2 to 1904 Philip M. Baker,, or his predecessors,
had diverted water from the combined Lehman and Baker Creeks in the
vicinity of the Baker townsite for use on the Baker ranch. Presumably,
these rights were not acquired by the Mining Company or were initiated
after abandonment by the company. By 1911 Baker had acquired the properties
of A. S. Lehman, both that land in the vicinity of the cave and the lands
in Sections 12 and 13 . In October 1911 Baker filed three proofs of
appropriation of water for use on the former Lehman lands and on the Baker
ranch. Proof No. 01064 covered the diversion from Big Spring (Lehman
Spring) for use on the former Lehman land in Sections 10, 12 and 13/
Proof No. OIO65 covered the diversion from Cave Springs for use on 7*5
acres in Section 15 near the cave. (No claim was made by Mr. Baker for
the Osceola ditch leakage claimed in anticipation of such leakage by his
predecessor, A. S. Lehman.)" Proof 01066 covered diversions below the
confluence of Baker and Lehman Creeks for use on the Baker Ranch."
The properties on which waters under the three proofs were used passed
from Philip M. Baker's ownership, the cave property being sold to Ernest
C. Mams who acquired Patent No. 724063 from the United States in December,
1919. Adams sold to Nathan Kiger who, in turn, sold to C. T. Rhodes on
November 6, 1920.' Rhodes, perhaps unaware of Proof OIO65, filed
Proof 01874 in 1925 claiming water of both Cave Spring and Lehman Creek.
He based his claim to the latter source on evidence that a ditch (Lehman
ditch) bad been constructed from Lehman Creek to the Cave tract and that
continuous use of water had been made since July, 1887* However,
following a hearing by the State Engineer at Ely, Nevada on March 3, 1931>
C. T. Rhodes stipulated along with other interested parties that Proofs
01064, OIO65, and 01066 of Philip M. Baker limited the vested rights
initiated prior to 1905 of Philip M. Baker and his successors and that
proofs conflicting with the Baker proofs be withdrawn. 9 By this action
Rhodes withdrew nis claim to water of Lehman Creek.
In 1934, following a determination by the State Engineer, the Seventh
Judicial District Court of the State of Nevada, in and for White Pine
County issued a decree dated October 1, 193^ defining rights in the waters
of Baker and Leinan Creeks initiated prior to 1905. C. T. Rhodes was
decreed rights to 0.15 *cubic feet per second from Cave Spring for the
irrigation of 7-5 acres in Section 15, T13N, R69E (the Cave property) with
a priority dating from 1890. Rights under Proof 01064 carrying the
earliest priority date of 1869 vere decreed to the United Securities
Corporation and rights under Proof 01066 were decreed to a number of
parties."
C. T. Rhodes soli his cave property including rights to Cave Spring under
Proof OIO65 to Vrlte Pine County in September, 1933 and- the County conveyed
the property to tie United States.
On June 3, 19**3, the United States filed an application { Serial "Ho. 10959}
with the State of Nevada for permission to change the point of diversion,
manner of use hp^ place of use of water of Cave Spring held under
Proof No. OIO65. In the application the source of water was changed so
as to include the water of South Spring, the use changed from irrigation
566
to domestic and recreational and the description of the place of use changed
to agree vith a more recent protraction of Section lines. At this date
(September, i960) work to divert or to make full use of the water has not
been completed. Each year since 19^3* annual requests for extension of tine
have been granted by the State.
NOTES
1. Water Right Location Notice by A. S. Lehman, May 2, 1887, recorded
in Book 3^ at page 230 of White Pine County. (Docket 1, Item II - 3)
2. GLO plat of T.13N.,R70E.,WM approved February 17, 1&79.
(Docket 1, Item 1-2)
3. Statement of Facts Relating to the Water Rights of the Osceola Placer
Company or Hydraulic Mining Company, Osceola, Nevada (transmitted
with A. Van V. Dunn's memorandum of March 31* 19^3 "to the Regional
Director, Region Three) (Docket 1, Item II-l)
k. Water Right Location Notice by A. S. Lehman, May 2, 1887 recorded in
Book 3k at page 229 of White Pine County (Docket 1, Item II-2)
5. Deposition of E. B. Robison, dated January 22, 1942 (Docket 1, Item II-7)
6. Proof No. OIO65 dated October 28, 1911 by Philip M. Baker.
(Docket 1, Item II-4)
7. Proof No. 01874 dated March 7, 1925 by C. T. Rhodes (Docket 1, Item II-7)
8. Decree of October 1, 193^ in "the adjudication of rights in the waters
of T^hman and Baker Creeks (Docket 1, Item III -7)
9. Stipulation in the Matter of the Determination of the Relative Rights
in and to the Waters of Baker and Lehman Creeks and their Tributaries.
(Docket 1, Item III- 3)
Vertical Files, Great Basin National Park.
567
APPENDIX N
ENTRY FOR ABNER [ABSALOM] LEHMAN IN ASSESSMENT BOOK,
WHITE PINE COUNTY, 1891
Possessory claim in and to the following described property
2 work horses $100
14 stock horses $200
2 stock cattle $25
560 acres of land with improvements situated in Snake
Valley and known as Lehman Ranch
Value of Real Estate $1 ,000
Value of Improvements $300
Value of Personal Property $325
Also 7 acres at Lehmans Cave with improvements
Value of Real Estate $7
Value of Improvements $200
Total Value $1 ,865
Total Value of All Property $2,365
Assessment Book, White Pine County, 1891, Nevada State Archives, Carson City.
569
APPENDIX O
TREATY WITH THE WESTERN SHOSHONES, NEVADA, 1863
Article 1.
Peace and friendship shall be hereafter established and main-
tained between the Western Bands of the Shoshonee nation and
the people and Government of the United States; and the said
bands stipulate and agree that hostilities and all depredations
upon the emigrant trains, the mail and telegraph lines, and upon
the citizens of the United States within their country, shall cease.
Article 2.
The several routes of travel through the Shoshone country,
now or hereafter used by white men, shall be forever free, and
unobstructed by the said bands, for the use of the government of
the United States, and of all emigrants and travellers under its
authority and protection, without molestation or injury from
them. And if depredations are at any time committed by bad
men of their nation, the offenders shall be immediately taken
and delivered up to the proper officers of the United States, to
be punished as their offences shall deserve; and the safety of all
travellers passing peaceably over either of said routes is hereby
guarantied by said bands.
Military posts may be established by the President of the
United States along said routes or elsewhere in their country;
and station houses may be erected and occupied at such points
as may be necessary for the comfort and convenience of travel-
lers or for mail or telegraph companies.
Article 3.
The telegraph and overland stage lines having been estab-
lished and operated by companies under the authority of the
United States through a part of the Shoshonee country, it is
expressly agreed that the same may be continued without hind-
rance, molestation, or injury from the people of said bands, and
that their property and the lives and property of passengers in
the stages and of the employees of the respective companies,
shall be protected by them. And further, it being understood
that provision has been made by the government of the United
States for the construction of a railway from the plains west to
the Pacific ocean, it is stipulated by the said bands that the said
railway or iLs branches may be located, constructed, and oper-
ated, and without molestation from them, through any portion
of country claimed or occupied by them.
571
Article 4.
It is further agreed by the parties hereto, that the Shoshonee
country may be explored and prospected for gold and silver, or
other minerals; and when mines are discovered, they may be
worked, and mining and agricultural settlements formed, and
ranches established whenever they may be required. Mills may
be erected and timber taken for their use, as also for building
and other purposes in any part of the country claimed by said
bands.
Article 5.
It is understood that the boundaries of the country claimed
and occupied by said bands are defined and described by them
as follows: On the north by Wong-goga-da Mountains and Sho-
shonee River Valley; on the west by Su-non-to-yah Mountains
or Smith Creek Mountains; on the south by Wi-co-bah and the
Colorado Desert; on the east by Po-ho-no-be Valley or Steptoe
Valley and the Great Salt Lake Valley.
Article 6.
The said bands agree that whenever the President of the
United States shall deem it expedient for them to abandon the
roaming life, which they now lead, and become herdsmen or
agriculturalists, he is hereby authorized to make such reserva-
tions for their use as he may deem necessary within the country
above described; and they do also hereby agree to remove their
camps to such reservations as he may indicate, and to reside and
remain therein.
Article 7.
The United States, being aware of the inconvenience resulting
to the Indians in consequence of the driving away and destruc-
tion of game along the routes travelled by white men, and by
the formation of agricultural and mining settlements, arc willing
to fairly compensate them for the same. Therefore, and in con-
sideration of the preceding stipulations, and of their faithful
observance by the said bands, the United States promise and
agree to pay to the said bands of the Shoshonee nation parties
hereto, annually for the term of twenty years, the sum of five
thousand dollars in such articles, including cattle for herding
or other purposes, as the President of the United States shall
deem suitable for their wants and condition, either as hunters
or herdsmen. And the said bands hereby acknowledge the re-
ception of the said stipulated annuities as a full compensation
and equivalent for the loss of game and the rights and privileges
hereby conceded.
Article 8.
The said bands hereby acknowledge that they have received
from said commissioners provisions and clothing amounting to
five thousand dollars as presents at the conclusion of this treaty.
Done at Ruby Valley the day and year above written.
James W. Nye.
James Duane Doty.
572
Te-moak, his x mark. Po-on-go-sah, his x mark.
Mo-ho-a Par-a-woat-zc, his x mark.
Kirk-weedgwa, his x mark. Ga-ha-dier, his x mark.
Tonag, his x mark. Ko-ro-kout-ze, his x mark.
To-so-wec-so-op, his x mark. Pon-ge-mah, his x mark.
Sow-er-e-gah, his x mark. Buck, his x mark
Witnesses:
J. B. Moore, lieutenant-colonel Third Infantry California
Volunteers.
Jacob T. Lockhart, Indian agent Nevada Territory.
Henry Butterficld, interpreter.
Charles J. Kappler, comp. and ed., Indian Treaties, 1778-1883 (New York, Interland Publishing Company 1972)
pp. 851-53. "
573
APPENDIX P
NEVADA NATIONAL FOREST
NEVADA.
Bp tbc presiocnt of tbe Tflniteo States of Hmcrica
H proclamation
WHEREAS, the public lands in the State of Nevada, which are here-
inafter indicated, are in part covered with timber, and it appears
that the public good would be promoted by utilizing said lands as a
National Forest;
Now, therefore, I, Theodore Roosevelt, President of the United
States of America, by virtue of the power in me vested by section twenty-
four of the Act of Congress, approved March third, eighteen hundred and
ninety-one, entitled, "An Act to repeal timber-culture laws, and for other
purposes," do proclaim that there are hereby reserved from settlement or
entry and set apart as a public reservation, for the use and benefit of the
people, all the tracts of land, in the State of Nevada, shown as the Nevada
National Forest on the two pails of the diagram forming a part hereof.
The withdrawal made by this proclamation shall, as to all lands which
are at this date legally appropriated under the public land laws or reserved
for any public purpose, be subject to, and shall not interfere with or defeat
legal rights under such appropriation, nor prevent the use for such public
purpose of lands so reserved, so long as such appropriation is legally main-
tained, or such reservation remains in force.
%\l WSLitWZSS <53UtcrjC0f, I have hereunto set my hand and caused
the seal of the United States to be affixed.
Done at the City of Washington this ioth day of February,
in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and
[seal.] nine, and of the Independence of the United States
the one hundred and thirty-third.
By the President :
Rohekt Bacon
Secretary of State.
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
[No. 839-]
575
* f-SL
2 N
TI!N
• A - r QF ^ i ■.'■• 5 ^ A V
( J A , = .. >^ ;\ r/yJ ALJ- s j
• ~" Ii T " " ■ ^c .'_t ' -" 4 ,-~. ■ ■■"'_,»!■.
NEVADA NATIONAL FOREST
NEVADA
V T j i A -3 .' V L H , i A • J AND BASE
C.-M-p «d n part 'Vorr 3LC : a*s arj^S dj'a
NOTE: This map only shows the Snake Division.
576
APPENDIX Q
NEVADA NATIONAL FOREST
•SECOND PROCLAMATION)
Bp tbc president of tbe 1Hnltco States of Hmcrica
H proclamation
WHEREAS it appears that the public good will be promoted by adding
certain forest lands to the Nevada National Forest, within the State
of Nevada, and by eliminating therefrom certain other lands;
Now, therefore, I, William H. Taft, President of the United States
of America, by virtue of the power in me vested by the Act of Congress
approved March third, eighteen hundred and ninety-one (26 Stat., 1095),
entitled "An Act To repeal timber-culture laws, and for other purposes,"
and also by the Act of Congress approved June fourth, eighteen hun-
dred and ninety-seven (30 Stat., i 1-34), entitled "An Act Making appro-
priations for sundry civil expenses of the Government for the fiscal
year ending June thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight, and for
other purposes," do proclaim that the boundaries of the Nevada National
Forest are hereby changed and that they are now as shown on the diagram
forming a part hereof.
The withdrawal made by this proclamation shall, as to all lands which
are at this date legally appropriated under the public land laws or reserved
for any public purpose, be subject to, and shall not interfere with or defeat
legal rights under such appropriation, nor prevent the use for such public
purpose of lands so reserved, so long as such appropriation is legally main-
tained, or such reservation remains in force.
The lands herein eliminated from the Nevada National Forest are
hereby withdrawn for classification under the Act of June twenty-fifth,
nineteen hundred and ten (36 Stat., 847), and will, when compatible with
the public interests, be restored to settlement and entry under the laws
applicable thereto on such dates as shall be fixed by the Secretary of the
Interior and after such notice as he may deem advisable.
This proclamation shall not prevent the settlement and entry of any
lands heretofore opened to settlement and entry under the Act of Con-
gress approved June eleventh, nineteen hundred and six, entitled "An
Act To provide for the entry of Agricultural lands within forest reserves."
577
%\l 'SStitUJCSS 'SclUlcrCiif, I have hereunto set my hand and caused
the seal of the United States to be affixed.
Done at the City of Washington this twenty-eighth day of
r -i October, in the year of our Lord one thousand nine
hundred and twelve, and of the Independence of the
United Slates the one hundred and thirty-seventh.
WM H TAFT
By the President :
P C Knox
Secretary of Stale.
578
Hr
- -j-
*T
V-
/';
i i
T \-»
>*
,-xv1-1
T I4N
T i3 N
T.I2N
N
T!ON
R 67E
R.68E R 69 E R 70E
National Forest Round m
j Additions
y
J Eliminations
NOTE: This map only shows the Snake Division.
579
APPENDIX R
.NHYADA NATIONAL FOREST
BE tbe (presiDent of tbe lUniteo States of America
H [Proclamation
"YTJHEP-EAS, it appears that the public good will be promoted by excluding
Y y certain lands within the State of Nevada from the Nevada National
Forest, and by restoring the public lands subject to disposition in
the excluded areas in a manner authorized by the Act of Congress approved
September thirtieth, nineteen hundred and thirteen (38 Stat., 113), entitled
"An Act To authorize the President to provide a method for opening lands
restored from reservation or withdrawal, and for other purposes";
Now, therefore, I, Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States
of America, by virture of the power in me vested by the Act of Congress approved
June fourth, eighteen hundred and ninety-seven (30 Stat., 11 at 34 and 36),
entitled " An Act Making appropriations for sundry civil expenses of the Govern-
ment for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety-
eight, and for other purposes", do proclaim that the boundaries of the Nevada
National Forest are hereby changed to exclude the areas indicated as eliminations
on the diagram hereto annexed and forming a part hereof.
And I do further proclaim and make known that in my judgment it is
proper and necessary, in the interest of equal opportunity and good adminis-
tration, that all of the excluded lands subject to disposition should be restored
to homestead entry in advance of settlement or other forms of disposition, and
pursuant to the authority reposed in me by the aforesaid act of September
thirtieth, nineteen hundred and thirteen, I do hereby direct and provide that
such lands, subject to valid rights and the provisions of existing withdrawals,
shall be opened to entry only under the provisions of the homestead laws
requiring residence, at and after, but not before, nine o'clock A. M., standard
time, on the sixty-third day after the date of this proclamation, and to settle-
ment and other disposition under any public land law applicable thereto, at
and after, but not before, nine o'clock A. M., standard time, on the seventieth
day after said date. Prospective applicants may, during the period of twenty
days preceding the date on which the lands shall become subject to entry,
selection or location of the form desired under the provisions of this proclamation,
execute their applications in the manner provided by law and present the same,
accompanied by the required payments, to the proper United States land office
in person, by mail, or otherwise, and all applications so filed, together with such
as may be submitted at the hour fixed, shall be treated as though simultaneously
filed and shall be disposed of in the manner prescribed by existing regulations.
Under such regulations conflicts of equal rights will be determined by a drawing.
581
Warning is hereby given that no settlement initiated prior to seven days
after the date for homestead entry will be recognized, but all persons who go
upon any of the lands to be restored hereunder and perform any act of settle-
ment thereon prior to nine o'clock A. M., standard time, on the seventieth day
from and after the date hereof, or who are on or are occupying any part of
said lands at such hour, except those having valid subsisting settlement rights
initiated prior to withdrawal from settlement and since maintained, and those
having preferences to make entry under the provisions of the act of Congress
approved June eleventh nineteen hundred and six (34 Stat., 233), entitled
"An Act To provide for the entry of agricultural lands within forest reserves",
and Acts amendatory, will be considered and dealt with as trespassers and will
gain no rights whatever under such unlawful settlement or occupancy; Provided,
however, that nothing herein contained shall prevent persons from going upon
and over the lands to examine them with a view to thereafter appropriating
them in accordance herewith. Persons having prior settlement rights or pref-
erences, as above defined, will be allowed to make entry in accordance with
existing law and regulations.
%Xl tK&itllCSS WB Tier COf, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the
seal of the United States to be affixed.
Done this twenty- fifth day of January in the year of our Lord one
[seal.] thousand nine hundred and nineteen, and of the Independence
of the United States the one hundred and forty-third.
WOODROW WILSON
By the President:
Frank L. Polk
Acting Secretary of State.
582
T. 14 N
T. 10 N.
30°
OO'
SO'
40'
R. 67 E.
R.68IE.
R.69 E.
R.70E.
583
APPENDIX S
HISTORY OF BIG WASH GRAZING ALLOTMENT TO 1939
As far back as any record or locul history has it, this allot-
ment has been used exclusively by the owner of the Big Wash ranches.
Those ranohea have chanced hands but few tines and it has been their
right from the inception of the forest service and since under
regular permit to graze this allotment exclusively. However, one
of the present ranch holders in Big Vfash, H. 21. Osborne, who at
that date controlled the Big Wash permit, saw fit to sell his
Lexington properties and the stock which grazed on his permit to
J, P. Johanson and Lola Hockethom. Johonsen and Heckethorn never
were able to satisfactorily graze this allotment because of the
problems presented by its rough character and lack of water. The
numbers permitted were audi that they could not afford to graze
it, hiring a camp tender and herder for such a smll number. Their
first and second year U3C under this set-up discouraged them to
the point that they sold the property to a man who wished to run
a small number himself. It is understood that the lands which
changed hands with this permit although at one tine had some agri-
cultural possibilities, aro now practically valueless even as
commensurate property.
The first buyer, one Lev/is Sycoun attempted to run a small
band on this area but even under personal supervision his losses
were such that the contract was foreclosed by Johonsen and Heckethorn.
Then again in 1937 the property was sold to a partnership, Mania
end Ides. These partners made an attempt to run a small band on
this allotment but ret with such heavy losses, or anticipated such
heavy lossos when they became better acquainted with the range, that
they lost heart and the properties again reverted back to Johansen
and nockethorn. In 1930, Johonsen and Heckethorn, not wanting
anyone to use this range for fear that it might set a precedent
and prevent them from making a favorable sale of range properties
and permit connected with this allotment, wantod to pay the grazing
fees on this small permitted number and not run sheep. As the
season was so far advanced vixen these arrangements were proposed,
it was felt best to let the situation go but it was proposed at
that time to not allox7 such details to be worked out for the 1939
grazing season but insist that use be made of this range by the
permit holder or non-use taken that the Forest Sorvioe might under
temporary permit allow sorco other qualified applicant to use this
range. Throughout this time, Osborne of Big Wash has run a few
head of cattle and some 200 to 300 head of sheep. It has been
known that trespass has boon taking place as his private lands
are poorly fenced and the sheep cannot stick their heads across the
fence without being on Government lands, however, as the value of
the forage in this vicinity is so little and as it was realized
the necessity for this ranch property to liave grazing rights, no
official trespass was taken and it is felt that no willful or
intentional trespass took place. However, it is evident that the
Big wash properties should never have boon divorced from the
585
grazing privileges in the Big Wash allotment. The Osborne phoejte
for yoars (35 years or so) have used Big Wash allotment and fanow
it in ever;' detail like no one else doos. They in the early history
of the use of this allotment , successfully grazed It with various
nunhers of stock and it is felt that if the opportunity is ever
presented, that the grazing rights of this allotment can again be
returned to the comensurate lands which nro in Big Wa3h| that such
should be done end that any f\itire transfers of this range from the
commensurate properties In Big Wash should be scrutinized very careful.! y
before being approved by the Forest Service.
Osborne realizes his mistake in selling this allotment and in
the future oomearrnngeme nt 3 night be effected v/hich will enable a
deal to bo made by the Osbornes and Johansen and Heckethorn. If
such is ever presented to the forest service, it should be favorably
received. A3 has been stated, it has been proposed that this
allotment ho definitely used by Johancen and Heckethorn in the
1939 season or adjustments made to insure this allotment's use.
Range Allotment Management Plan, Nevada National Forest, Big Wash Allotment - S&G, August 5, 1939,
Sylvan D. Warner, Forest Ranger, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
586
APPENDIX T
HISTORY OF STRAWBERRY GRAZING ALLOTMENT TO 1939
This nllotrcr:nt was foraerly a portion of tho O. 3. Robison
& Sons allotment, which allotment cons ia ted of Strawberry Canyon
below tho mill eat t inn rnd Burnt and Rater Canyona between
Strawberry and Lehman Creeks. Also tho east portion of Weaver
Creek lying within the Forest Boundary ♦nd east of Sage (or
Sage Hen) Creek. This allotment in 1910 was used by 3400
head of sheep. Use was made of this range with about an average
of 3200 head of sheep up to end including the ye or 1928.
In 1918 an a letter written by Fred L. Mott, Forest Super-
visor, and addressed to Ceorge C. Lorson, tho Supervisor granted
tho perfecting of en exchange of cllotiaants in the then Lexington
allotment. This change consisted of the voluntsry relinquishment
by R. T. Swallow of that portion of the Big Springs Wash range
lying above the Forks and east to the me in divide. In this
letter, it was pointed out by the Forest Supervisor that this
was being allowed in order to make an exchange on ^he northern
end of tho Sncko Division with Marriott end Cahocn. This ex-
change was to be that portion of V. caver Creek lying within the
Forest Boundary east of Goge (Sago Hon) Creek. This rould be
given to Harriott and Gaboon to give them sufficient range to
carry their then allotted number of sheep. In exchange for
thio portion of the Weaver Creek drainage, George 3. Robison
& 3ons (B.H. Robison in charge) was to receive thot portion of
the Bsellow Brothers allotment lying north cf the Forks of Big
Springs 'ash and east to the J'eln Divide. This area of the
Swallow Brothers allotment i-co relinquished by L!r. R. T. Swallow
on his own volition when he admitted thet his sheep did not graze
on it at ony time end but very fevi of his cattle reached the
upper edge of this oree during the winter months. In this letter
above mentioned, ho expressed his willingness that it be used
by other pemltteea.
In 1921, it was recognised that the George 3, Robison &
Sons' permitted numbers were in excess of the number the range
would carry. .About this time, attempts were made to reduce
numbers to tho proper carrying capacity of the rongo. Tothis
end, on recommendation of Renger Quato, permitted numbers wore
reduced to 2200 in 1922.
About this time, records indicnto that George S. Robison
&, Sons was dissolved end each of the sons were given a portion
of the portnership permit. In 1923, that portion of the former
George 3. Robison & Sons permit lying in the north end of the
Snake division wee transferred to George W. Robison. In 1923
587
thia Amounted to DG3 hc«>d. V< bother this exohnn^e was a lease
or purchase wes not indicated in the locnl files. Accordingly,
this portion of the former range v>as adminlstorod by George
W. Kobioon up to end including tho season of 193!) *ith an average
of about 600 head of ,0. & 0. on the drelncg93 cf Strawberry,
Kill Creek, Burnt Canycn ^nd ell cf Lehman Creek drainage above
the campground.
Records en file under Pcbieon, O.S. indicate thet the
esverr.l sons ?.ho had charge of tho sheep at different times
handled the herds such thet at least three different rangers
found it necessary to instruct them to not bring the aheep to a
coaaon bed ground end that salting on water would have to be
discontinued. Hovrav^r, under memorandum cf June 11, 1952,
Ranger Taylor instructs Orris Robison to handle the Lexington
herd in tho following r:?~r*ier:
".^.ost of tho water rir-his on tho 0. 3. Robison allotment
are springs of v.hich sosjo of then era troughod. I v;ould
recommend salting at those watering places, but put tho
salt in troughs. The G. B. Rob is on allotment is watered
better and thesnlt should b^ used away fron the water end
the troughs moved often. M
(The G. ?;. Robison allotment is nov? part of the Strawberry
allotment ). This memorandum is approved and ai.rned by Supervisor
C. 3>. Olson.
Local records indicate that this permit ranged from about
650 heed to its present number of 655 head which nunbers wore
set up in 1935, This allotment remains largely tho snrao since
it was first set up in 1919 for the Robison operators.
Fort ions of thi3 allotment have been greased in common with
cattle since tho inception of tho Forest Scrvloe. In 1935,
an oraa a mile square was withdrawn for the Lahnon Caves Notional
Monument. Similarly in 1934 a recreation aroa in Lehman Creek
vjss withdrawn from grazing use. Thia recreation area, though
not covering such a lnrge area, controls quite a little piece of
the middle portion of Lehman Greek proper.
Evor since the non-use of portions of the Baker Creek allot-
ment has boon taken by the Goraiael Livestock Company and their
successors, Robison Brothers have been granted the use of portions
of Baker Creek to use in connection with their Strawberry allot-
ment by the ranger in charge. This practice has boen followed
588
na nearly no I can A stern ins, since ab^ut 13"4. However,
ouch uso apparently did not nonorapllih th<* purpose for which
it v-ob intondod as it aa^nn that tho Ilobicon ^rothors op
George W. Robiaon for a parioi of tine merely shifted their
operations from tho lew range formerly necessary to uss, to
thia Baker portion granted r:«4 no mliof in high areas was
attained.
Under the Itobison Brothers' maneg&Dent, thia rllotnont
has been grazed in conjunction vjith a portion of the former
leaver Creek allotment, making tho numbers grazed on vhetls
now tho Strawbarry allot.rr><mt about 1100. In 1937 a range in-
spection of thia allotment definitely pointed cut tho over
grazed condition of the Lehnan b^sin unit. This basin has been
>n ideal place to graze sheep end tho operators as well as the
herders have been inclined to hold sheep in this area considerably
longer than he a boon boat for the forage concerned. Thia is
elso true of the Windy Crmp unit at the head of Strewborry
Canyon (now grazed in connection .1th tho «oaTor Creek allotment).
The withdrawal cf the ?»bovo mentioned lands from grazing
use has influenced tho operators to not attempt to use forpge
adjacent to these lands for fear of trespass. From 1935 to
1958 at lata t, no uso was mecle of the lover Lehman Creek unit.
This unit, conservatively, cont»iins about five to six herd
days feed.
The use of tho Big Pino unit cf this allotment is confined
to watering on the Faker Crook side. This hna been allowed for
several years while tho Baker allotment haa been in non-use
*nd temporary use status.
In the lower Strawberry "rook unit is a poison eres on
g&i^f^n^
source of poison hsve brought no results. Losses ranging from
a few bond to as hi£h as GOO head have been experienced at
various tines. The operator his this area pretty rail in ralnd
through experience over a period of tine end linit3 his herders
out of this area quite closely.
Pressure on upper areas can no doubt be accounted for by
these various factors— poison erea in Strawberry, recreation
area in Leteaen Creek end National Monument withdrawal.
Range Allotment Management Plan, Nevada National Forest, Strawberry Allotment - S&G, July 20, 1939,
Sylvan D. Warner, Forest Ranger, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
589
APPENDIX U
HISTORY OF SWALLOW GRAZING ALLOTMENT TO 1939
rfhia nllotaent in practically its present boiuido has booa
used by U;uilow Broth ere since tho inception of the Forest, In
1910 thoy wore ipcunted a p exult to cruise on this fillotnont 250
huad of cattle arid <&00 head owoe. This allotisint varied aoiviowhat
through the youro until about 1919, at which tir*o Swallow Brothers
hud porr.it tod 1000 hand of aha op for n four raouth period and 800
head of cattle. In and about 1019, tho portion of ranee lying
froi; Willitsaa Greek youth to fallow Greek (ifater Canyon) was sot
aside mo an exclusive oattlo unit. Swallow* a oattlo erased this
rouge in oarxum with cattle grazed by A. 0. iiirkeby. Shis continued
until 19:24 at which tii*s Kirkcby transferred to tho cuat side of
tho BuhI© Division. At this tiiio, Hoblson Brothers wore sieved
south to tho present boundary and Bwnllow Bothers wore given tho
exclusive use of tho section lying between Williuaa and Swallow
Ganyons. 'fhia fact should bo borno in mind when future discussions
of tho Swallow Brothers ullotuoat are made aa Swallows claim to
huvo had exclusive use of this ran&e throughout tho period of tho
Jforost Service. I-owever, close perusal of records will indicate
that fchia portion neat toned -.jus cot aside for Kirkeby in or about
1919 to 1024, tuid was Given to Shallows* exclusive use after that
date so that ijuy dis agrees nt as to the fact that they received
nothing when Airkeby iiovcd to the east aide is to tho contrary.
(firming of cattle on tho south end of this allot rent prior
to the organisation of the Forest Service io reported to liave boon
exceedingly heavy at various tiiaos. Swallow Brothers had a large
outfit and ran Great Mi~bors upon public dooain.
In or about 19£4, tlso boundury was established at its present
locution and the posuit changed hands fron Swallow Brothers to
K. T. Callow. Uitdor H. f. Swallow's Eunagnpont, the allotment was
giuiiod with sheep to tliu uxteufc of 1000 head with 200 head of
cattle, froa 50 tu 100 head being issued annually for year-long
use, This \.as proposed to tidco core of winter drift. Xn 1931
tho first reference is lAide in uuo files to possible uis-ijanageweat
by It. *. Swallow's operators. In a status at dated April i$0, 1S31
hunger Tuylox*, under gracing instructions , approved by C. s%.
Beau, rorust Supervisor, states: "X have noticed tliat salt troughs
aro cuulou and uost of then arc in penjaaosi ounps. Salt ia kept
in then continually which &oqq to tiiow that the sheep are brought
to ca^po. These salt troughs* shall bo noved around often so not
xo draw tho sheep to a eoiiioa salting place."
jlu 10SJ2, 'faylor ia ^roiiinci instructiona appixjved by 0. J.
Oluon, a«;tdn points out hie belief tlsat shoep were brought to coiTiuon
bod t.-iourils. But he furtJier atfitoa: "Hourly all tho watering
p3aoes are Eirouad sp^iu;;.^ L.ost of u;hioh are troa['];ed, I would
591
roooiincmd you oalt your sheep at these ■watering places, hut put
the salt in troughs. This, in ny cefciristloa, will save a lot of
trailing of ths sheep." (^utcd Juno H, 1S38)«
Under & tittft.0 dated i*iua 13, llj£3 end ©iened by C. J, Olaon,
it is pointed out that **tljo malting of sheep should bo done away
froa water end on reeky pigeon vhoro the least daMag© will occur."
bir. Olson further states: "X told I*r« AuR(juey that ho should seo
to it that his steal: wore ^ra&ed on tho low r«iiyo until further
urrciiiijoiaant s were node. £hq^ had not already boon uula by Hangers
Baylor and ISoore. I told hiij that it would bo s&ooesaaiy for hixa to
see that lila herder a utilised tho ran^e acre evenly and that the
a took bo X'u-iovod ;.*zo;.i watering places not to exceed un hour or two
after they were driven in ibr water. It is the practice of a lot
of sheep herders to cliade the sheep up on the water all day aid wo
uuat esort our boot efforts and a oh for full cooperation of the
Permittee in avoiding this".
"ilr. Auaquey aduittod that hie herders had not properly oared
fortto allotment last year una stated that ho would Give then
ilofinitc instructions to ouo to it that tboy lived up to then.
It is s;y intention for I una to handle the run^o a lot bottor and
wast insist upon their doin^ it."
Observations undo by the rancor in charge when first coming
on this district iauicutud LiL.i tho Swollen sheep ieuoed to Auzcniqy
wore not boinc hue died ia*oporly. -hvcry oirort was uado in 1637 and
1938 to £et pro pa* handling of this* allotment but cooperation frcu
Auz^uey viae not attained. It \.txa pointed out to Swallow Brothers
(Oeorco *»• Swallow) that ho stood to take a penalty reduction
or entire loss of his pumit if future instructions could not bo
carried out. *ho Ica^e to nuiiujaey had not boon working out so
wutlefnotorily and it ia felt tiat in the next pxtalng season
radical change in iUiUa^er.ait will bo ;:;udo.
In ituV after a period of depression and drouth, H, *, Swallow
tool: banhrupoy and tho pl&ee wan eaved in tJje aacioa of his sons,
iiwullow brothers. Xn IbbV, Uoor^o Larson, Supervisor, obtained a
voluntary transfer reduction frou H« 'f. Swallow's two sons,
(Swallow Brotliers), a considerable S & G reduction on their entire
permit, both Suako and Sehell divisions. This reduction reduced
the pressure on the Swallow allokiint to Hbb sheep and increased
the 0 h U pomittod ttuwhoro froa 168 to U00 head of which ICO head
were to bo grazed curium tls winner season, the cattle preference
on the Soholl Uraa. division bein^ dropped,
iiaaiiiiiati. on of tlw runcja indicated that tl^e basque hei'dors
uiiitfi" Auzijucy's :-a';i^jaiait used ti*3 upper areas (the Highland hid^e)
very so»verely. In ihet, 'U.is seotion would appear to be us badly
off as any on -^ho iiuaia) division. 3ie*iav«s?f ita tOTObX condition
can only bo taken £i\m verbal atutoumts, as the rancor in cliar^e
had never soon it in its original stato, but it is believed the
area ia ea^abifc of producing bottor voGCtative cover than now exists*
592
i>ustxc thu iirvi'.u ,.!,•; ijuioon of 1950, continued ooaversationa
were held i-i tii Uvnllow :Jx-others concerning the legitime? of tbeir
transaction with fcne i»ly iiitional Baal*:, John iluSB<$iay and thoi£*uXve3
and fui'thes?, it was pointed out tb&t for their best interests, they
should &ot out frou under tho /*u2S(nK),y louso. *'iu*kher, it was
ou;;: '.cited tb£t it uitiht bo well to con aider a ctenge In oleics of
utoc:: t';rua©d« In about i^X, a portion of tho original Swallow
allotfj&at which aonaisted of tho Codai- Cabin Canyon was voluntarily
released by li. 'f. ftwnllow and civon by tho Forest Service to
Swallow Brother^ in exchazi&a for a pm*cel of range in i«©aver Crook
t&ich was to bo transferred to iiirriott and Gaboon*
frhe awallow allotXAsut, other than tea section used by sheep
which iu iar&aiy Johns hollow* and I&urphy itueh ecd upper Docathon
Canyon, has never boon fully utilised because of lack of viator.
Cteasa (typical cow ibr^o) must bo in somewhat itc original condition
as ui:o has boon vary li0ht. Use in Lincoln and Polo Canyon Lea been
undo periodically \*l\n onuiiia ...:ih control taaintained by drift fence
built under special use poniit* The bueisa Jave been yracin^ on
what ia ;i:.own us the Bud-, raaturo (u:iit) which is iu did above
frwaiXow Cannon C"Ut«*r GimyonJ«
M'atar developments on thiu allottient are of hiijheut priority
and pursuit of dovelopaoiita baa been ris. da consistent v/Ith funds
available, I&wever, i:t\uiix \.orh yet raneiua to bo done, Use by
cattle u>.ulcr winter peruit i a 11*37 gave definite indications that
this practice was pear Luuui^eusxit* Although occasional drift takes
place frcu tae winter mu,;o up to tho low foothills on the forest,
this problems no doubt can be bundled other thu» with a fuli-tiidn
year pcradLt. In ths winter tliaa, recorda indicate 0, h 71* gssaaing
la largely confined to areas previously* j$raze& the preceding surnor*
*ihl.i pKiCtice defeats the very purpose for which tho dtfrft postal t
Range Allotment Management Plan, Nevada National Forest, Swallow Allotment - S&G, August 5, 1939, Sylvan
D. Warner, Forest Ranger, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
593
APPENDIX V
HISTORY OF SHINGLE CREEK GRAZING ALLOTMENT TO 1939
The biggest portion of this allotment vrns originally used
by Marriott Brothera end r?ns firat set up as a grazing unit in
1912, It oontinued under the Iforriott management until 1920,
at which tine the stock was purchased by the Robiaon Brothers
now of Baker, Nevada. The* files indicate that considerable
correapondenoe work took place with the Marriott Brothera in an
effort to control the mnbor of permitted stock upon tha foreat
aa the Harriott Brothora orasd more sheep than thoy were permitted
to run on this allotment during most of the time they had control
of thla allotment.
In 1919 the north boundary of the allotment was at the ridge
south of Board Creek . In 1920 it raa moved north to the forest
boundary aouth of Willard Creek, This small change was made at
the time Robison Brothera took over the J. C. Cahoon preference.
In 1922, the southern portion of this allotment was changed to
accommodate a email permit of 525 head of sheep issued to A. C.
Kirkeby, Hoi.ever, thia permit which whs stuck in between Swallow
Brothers on the south r»nd Robison Brothers on the north was only
used in this location cne year, after v;hioh the boundary returned
to its formor atatua which was the ridge between Fine and Ridge
Creeks.
In 1924, Robiaon Brothers grazed £324 head of cheep and their
allotment was extended from the drainage of Fine Creek south to
include the drainage of Ridge Creek find Raise Spring to a point
near Hub Mine, thia south line to be posted by the Ranger. In
1925 the allotment boundary still road tha sp.me, that is, "from
a point as posted by Ranger near Rub Mine, north to r-nd including
the south droinnge of '.'cillerd Creek." Thi3 aaotion wr-is only a
portion of the Robison allotment. Their allotment continued on
around the north end of the Snake Division *nd was bounded by
lines contained in the history of gracing use for the Soever Crock
allotment.
The preference in 1923 v.ns at ill for 2824 hor.d of ahoep. In 1926,
allotment boundaries rnd preference numbers ronnined the srme.
Local records indicate that the permitted number nnd allotment
boundaries of Robison Brothers remained the same until the year
1931. From 1931 to 1937, tha only thing found on file indicating
use or history are grazing instructions for the years 1933, 1934
end 1935. These instructions are in tha form of a form latter
signed by Konger Taylor and C. J. Cloon, Supervisor. Ho reference
is m8do to allotment boundaries or numbers run. Letters of trans-
mittal indicate that in 1935, tho end of the ten your term, a 10$
reduction wos levied egninet tho Robiaon Brothers vrhich roduood
their permitted number to 2550 which is their present permitted
number for what lo now the leaver and Shingle Creek allotment.
595
In 1937, as no boundaries had definitely been aet up in tha
vicinity of Hub Mine, this area wan visited vith the Permittees
conoerned, Doylo C. Roblaon. rnd Coorga fl. Swllow, end this
line kq8 poated in agreement with both pnrtloo. Thia wea dona
to carry out the tern of the permits dating back to 1934.
A review of local records indicates thst oinoe 1920, several
local rangers have soon fit to call to the nttention of Robieon
Brothers their bedding of cheep at a common bed ground and their
salting at or too near voter. A review of the above feats has
boon made to point out the changes that have boon made by the
Fcreat Service in boundaries of alio fronts belonging to Robieon
Brothers.
In 1937, the Robieon Brothers allotment wee divided into
tv?o allotments by the ranger in charge. Theao ellotnenta were
called Shingle Creak allotment (described above) and Weaver
Creek (described in plan for that allotment). Thi8 was done to
facilitate the setting up of definite management plena end t*hlch
ellotraonta break themselves into geographic units.
A review of records on file at the local office indicates
that for acme tine in the pest, lata grazing has boon ellowed
by either the forest x anger in charge or the supervisor of the
forest st thrt tine. In. fret, it would seem that this haa been
a habitual privilege and that prnotieally overy seeson ainoa
©bout 1924, Boras one to three weeks overgrazing has been permitted
on the low portions of thin nilotment. It ia true that thia
allotment consists of a goodly portion of low, possibly spring-
fall range and thot this Blttorbrush type of forage can be utilized
quite readily in late September nnd e^rly October, however, auoh
continued use in both gunner nnd fell (under special grant)
should be discouraged. Although the nature of the range la very
rough and rocky and rill sone'ivhot protect itself, thia valuable
brush typo (Purnhie. trldentata) can only remain in good condition
by conservative nnd proper use*
In 1935 a grant ran medo to D. R. Zei'r of Spring Valley for
a permit to graze 2? head of cnttle. These cnttle to run in common
v.ith sheep operated by Swcllon Brothers in the north end of their
allotment sad Robiscn Brothers in the south end of their allotment.
However, in the short tine elapsed since 1935, most of the Kerr
cattle et some tine or the other have grazed on the forest undor
terms of this permit end it now becomes practically impossible to
rectriot the numbers on tjie forest without considerable herd riding
and constent attention. The Fori- c±ttle, since being placed upon
the foreot, have run practically from Shingle Creek on the
north to Will lama Creek on the couth. They hove been known
to have been on the forest rs enrly as April 6 pnd it is reported
they have been on es late ps November 15. Records show several
memos by the renger in charge concerning this trespnsa both in
permitted numbers nnd range covorcd and season grazed. This matter
596
has been taken up with the ovner, D. R. Kerr, never?>l times eaoh
aeason. It ia felt that a rea™nebla amount of effort hra been
put forth by thio Pennitton to restrict both tho nunbsr of hla
oattlo end the numbers upon tho forest. However, to dnte, theae
efforts havo cot boon sufficient to properly control tho dlotribution
and numbers of this Permittee's stock.
It ia felt that the construction of the proposed Spring
Valley drift fence will be a big step tov.-srd correcting thia problem.
Robison Brothers at no tiny have made any formal ocmplaint of the
numbers nor aonaon of use taken by the Kerr cettlo, but inapection
has indicated that they have traveled upward with th^ rotreating
snow, trampling out many of our choicer forage sites. Thia allot-
ment is ao rough and rooky that there *ra only a few areas on vrhich
cattle will normally run of their own accord. I!:any of th^ae areas
will naturally become critlerl areas if thia permit continues in
the future. To date theroyr© no kno.vn critical press na a result
of the early use or increased numbers of the D. P.. Kerr stock.
Thio allotment is not considered to be An a very bad shape
as a whole, as tho very nature of tho cover (rough granotio boulders)
protects the forage from excess trailing. However Shingle Greek
Basin at tho head of Shingle Creek is perhaps the most fovorable
grazing site on the alio teen t and offers an enticing morsel to
both tho sheep from a forage standpoint nnd tho herders in reference
to easy herding. Accordingly this area has no doubt had more use
than ia proper, hov/ever, examinations nedo in 1937 rould indicate
that there are many other plncoa on other nllotments rcoro severely
ovorgrazed then is this be.sin. However, enro should bo exorcised
in the future use of thia unit that proper vogotetivo covar can
be maintained.
Range Allotment Management Plan, Nevada National Forest, Shingle Creek Allotment - S&G, August 5, 1939,
Sylvan D. Warner, Forest Ranger, Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
597
APPENDIX W
CATTLE SALTING PLAN, SNAKE DIVISION, NEVADA NATIONAL FOREST, 1918
Designation Name Cattle or Horses Salt
A Swallow Bros. 268 1608
B Albin C. Kirkeby 40 240
C G. S. Robison & Sons 50 300
D G. W. Robison 65 390
E F. J. Parker 25 150
F I,lr s . C . W . Heu s s er 10 - 0
G L. Snyder 30 180
H P. W. Baker 30 180
I P. M. Baker 100 600
J G. W. Gonder 9 0 540
K M. H. Osborne 60 360
L '.". F. Fowler 25 150
M E. E. Fowler 10 60
4818
Swallow Bros. V.'ho run 263 cattle on this division are designated
A. Thi3 permit is m-'.inly to cover cattle which drift into
the hills, and as a great deal of their allotment is dry and
only suited for //inter grazing when cattle water on snow it
is difficult to write a plan which would be fair to all parties
especially as I am not f -.miliar with grazing conditions on
this unit. Therefore T shall familiarize myself with the
country as soon as it is possible to get into the hills and
learn where the cattle range and where salt can be placed to
599
best advantage. In the meantime I shall insist on sufficient
salt being put out to the stock according to Mr. Swallows usual
custom, until I can write a more comprehensive plan to be
followed.
Albin C. Ki~kebv with 40 cattle has been designated!?.
Hows: May 1''40 lbs on the slope, north of
He will salt a3 fo
the mouth of Williams creek, -49- lba on the ridge bctWoon Dry
n
-a-nd-Williams ennyons near the foothill's. June 15, 40 lbs
ar Plume on Williams creek, 40un rib, 9 suutb/of Williams or.
Aug 15, 40 lbs at head of Williams creek and -40— on-rid ge-nea-rr/
head-of— Dry— creeir.
Geo. S. Robison and Sons are designated C. They will salt
\b follows: Lay 1, 50 lbs in mouth of Strav7berry canyon
50 lbs at Springs in the Juniper east of Sagehen and south of
9
Weaver creek. June 15, 50 lbs near tunnel where Osceola ditch
[\. 'A
leaves Strawberry drainage and 50 lbs at mouth of large canyon
ii *
leadin^south about a mile below the sawmill. Aug 15, 50 lbs
on ridge one mile south of the sawmill and 50 at head of
Strawberry canyon.
Geo. W. Robison with 65 head is design-ted D and will salt
i)'
as follows: ;. ay 1, Lay 1 50 lbs in mouth of Ouinn canyon,
'SO lbs in Lehman canyon -J mile from the mo"th.
r 4
June 15, op lbs on ridge east of O.uinn canyon and 30 lbs on
/
C \ / j
summit between Fole and ^uinn canyons '.' Aug 15., 50 lbs at head
of ;uinn canyon and a0 lbs at head of Pole canyon.
F. J. Parker designated E runs 25 cattle and will salt as
'A
follows : Lay 1 50 lbs on the ridge between Burnt canyon and
600
Lehman creek at a Post marked E 1. June 1.5 50 lbs in Lehman
canyon near int ke of Osceola ditch. Aug. 15 50 lbs near
lake in Lehman canyon.
' re C. '.'.'. Heur.aer V.'ith 10 cattle is designatedF. Will salt as
follows: !. ay 1, S5 lbs of salt on ridge north of Will creek
Mbove her homestead. July 1 ^5 lbs at head of I ill creek
canyon.
L. Snyier with 50 cattle id designated G and will salt
as follovrs; May 1 , 60 lbs on the ridge above his place and norfc
of Lehman creek. June uf'f 60 lbs |- mile below cabin in Lehman
canyon. Aug 15, 6q lbs in Lehman canyon halfway between
cabin and Lake.
P.W. Baker with 30 cattle has been designated H and will salt
as follows: I'ay 1 60 lbs on ridge south of Lehman cave and
north of Baker creek. June 15, 60 lbs on summit between Pole
canyon and Baker creek. Aug 15, 60 lbs in same place .
P. Li. Baker with -100 head is designated I and will put out salt
H
as follows: f.ay 1 100- lbs on rid^e between Pole canyon and
CyV,..
Baker creek:, oO lbs On ridge south of Lehman creek below
caves "and 50 lbs at forks of Laker creek.
June 15' 1-00 lbo on ridge \ mile north of meadows on S. F.Baker
creek, 50 lbs on ridge south of T.nake creek .lust below sawmill
_ ' ' ' '* 1 ■' ■ r T i J
St)-" lbs on riir-Q \ mile northwest of sawmill.-- Aug 15, L0-6- lbs
on rid »"3 '■ t'.v^en forks of Bak'-r creek 50: lbs near Deer Lake
in Snake creek anl -50 lbs on saddle between Eaker an d Snake cr.
0. 17. Gonder, designated J h s 00 cattle, and will salt as
i
follows:/! ay 1 50 lbs in mouth of Snake creek 1 mile above
601
Matthews claim,. 50 lbs on ridge near road from Big wash to
Ponita mi Hand T 80 lbs between Granite and Snake canyons,
June 15" 00 lbs on ridge between i.'ofcth and South forks of Snake
cr. ad 00 lbs on ridge between S. F. Big V.'ash and Lexington
i
canyon. Aug , 15 on ridge south of Deer lake in Snake canyon
ana 90 lbs at head of S. F. Big Wash.
(/ '
M. H. Osborne with 60 cattle is designated K . Will salt as £b£
follows: Hay 1, 60 lbs. on ridge north of Big wash opposite
lower end of Liadsen claim and 60 lbs near drift fence in N.F.
which is dry. June 15, 60 lbs on ridge near Maple Spr. -a#td-
fXrT^a and 60 lbs near narrows in N.F. Aug. 15 60 lbs on high
ridge between north and south forks' and 60 on ridge east of
maple Spring.
W. F. Fowler has £5 cuttle and is designated L.
W;ll salt as follows: May 1, 50 lbs on ridge south of Big
wash ooposite lower end of Ladsen claim. June 15, 50 lbs on tc
trail from forks of Big Wash to Lexington. Aug. 15, 50 lbs
on ridge south of old sawmill in south fork of Bi?r Wash.
E, E. Fowler with 10 horses will place 60 lbs on ridge south
t
of his claim on May 1 .
602
APPENDIX X
GRAZING PLANS FOR BONITA BASIN
AND STRAWBERRY CREEK DRAINAGE, 1927
BONITA BASIN
Mr. Glen A# Bellander,
Baker, Nevada.
Dear Sir;
In aocordanoe with our discussion and agreement of
yesterday relative to the plan of grazing your allotment
this year, the following plan is made:
The deferred area on your allotment is all of
Boneta Basin. That area is not to be grazed until after
seed maturity, about September first.
You are to graze Horse Heaven before starting up
Snake Creek, the object being to graze that part of the
range while there is sufficient snow there to water on, if
there is sufficient snow after the opening of the grazing
season. If the snow on Horse Heaven is sufficient to last
for some time, you are to graze what low range you can,
without interfering with Rudolph Merchun, before grazing
Horse Heaven. After grazing Horse Heaven you are to start
up Snake Creek, grazing the range as you go and so as to
make it last until Boneta Basin is ready for grazing.^ . f; ■
. . i • • • ■"-> ■ ■• • ■■•■
603
Your particular attention is called to the stipu-
lations in your grazing permit, all of which should be
thoroughly understood by you. Your herder should be fully
instructed in the handling of your sheep so as not to
Violate any of the terms of your permit. v
Very truly yours,
Geo. E. Moore
Forest Ranger.
STRAWBERRY CREEK
Robison Brothers,
Baker, Nevada.
Gentlemen:
In accordance with agreement made between Jas. F.
Robison and myself, the deferred area on your allotment
for this year is the same as it was last year, namely: all
of your allotment within the Strawberry Creek drainage
except that portion above the old log chute . The deferred
area is not to be grazed until after seed maturity, about
September first.
Upon entering your allotment you should aim to
graze the lower range as long as possible in order to
give the higher range a chance to grow, then gradually
work to the higher range.
All salting should be done out away from the
water. On the tops of ridges and other plaoeo suitable
604
for bed grounds are the preferred places. Any salt troughs
used should be moved frequently.
your particular attention is called to tho+ stipu-
lations in your grazing permit, all of which should be
thoroughly understood by you. Your herders should bo / '
fully instructed in the handling of your sheep so aa^riot''
to violate any of the terras of your permit.
very truly yours,
• Geo. E.Moore
Forest Range ri
Historical Files, USFS, Ely.
605
APPENDIX Y
GRAZING ALLOTMENT DATA, SNAKE DIVISION,
NEVADA NATIONAL FOREST, 1938
Swallow Allotment S&G end C&H: Swallow Bros, permittee 1165 S&.G, 300 C&H.
The Swallows, through John Ausquey, placed only 785 E/L on the Forest
this past season. They were given permission to go on some two weeks early
and get feed that could be reach in John's Wash with water from the melting
snow. They came off the allotment in Williams Canfcron on the 21st of August
two weeks early. I did'fct get to check the use on thadejiiered unit which
was upper Murphey but I believe with the small number&Tfhis high range should
have gotten a little rest.
I have discussed with both you and the former Supervisor all the
information that I have been able to rather concerning the ownership of the
wheep grazed under the Swallow permit. \s pointer! out there is no doubt
in my mind the fact that the Swallow boys do not o»'n the sheep but proving
this in the eyes of a court might prove dificult. It i3 my belief, however,
that their cettle is in their own name, right and title. This might have
some bearing on their recent request to have their sheep preference changed
to cattle.
The Swallow cattle were placed on the forest on the 2nd day of June
(115) and grazed in the lower portion of Big Springs Wash where the Tckisr
water was running. This condition had not been possible for years previous
for the water had not run as far down the wash before for 22 years. Addition-
al numbers were put on at a later date to pring the total up to 165 head.
The cattle were in charge of a rider who kept them pretty well in the areas
designated on my trip in there at the time the cattle v;ere put on. Some of
the cattle got up into the upper part of Ced^r Cabin which is on the Robison
allotment and will have to be prevented in the future. It is my belief that
sufficient salt was keep out in designated places all though no particular
salt plan has been worked out. It has been my intention to make up this
plan after I had a chance to see what the natural drift of the cattle would
be.
The main problem on this allotment will be the grazing of the winter
permit if cattle are run in the summer. This will call for attention so that
the feed in the low hillsnext to the south boundary can be left for the grazing
of the 100 head in the winter. This particular winter Swallows have asked
for only 50 head for two months while lost year they ran 350 head for two
months. Close spring and fall inspections will be necessary to check on
the possible use th*$winter to come and the distribution over the area during
the »«** winter season. I have had no occassion to question numbers put
on the forest by the Swallows but care should be excorsised to see that anly
the permitted numbers are run as they Lave considerable number* over their
preference^ most of which range adjacent to the south boundary during the
winter on Public Oomain.
This is a big allotment and should well carry the liljttofcAot allotted
numbers in sp ite of the pressure that was formerly given this allotment before
considerable deduction was made in the transfer.
607
S&G
Lexington Allotment ;-/ G. S. Robison Estate permitte 1200 head preference.
In the main this allotment is in good shape. The high ranges in and
around the Granite peak will need some relief. This is a browse range and
has been on the improve for some ten years judge ing folpn the condition of
the major browse species. Mr. Larson last October in going over part of
this allotment said that he could not believe the improvement that had been
made in some 15 years since he had been on the sxxifefcnJEX allotments2 Drys
have been using the range for the past four years. Mr. Robison has been
coming on the allotment late in July with about twice the permitted number
of sheep and staying on only long enough to use the permitted sheep days.
It is not known for sure whether this kind of use has been the reason for
the increase e# in the forage or if it is the class of sheep.*(drys over E/L)
Mr. Henry Osborne, the old timer in Big Wash, told toe that while most
of the range on this allotment was in good shape ,he would agree, he thought
that the high range was little if any better than it formerly was years ago.
It is the intention of Mr D.C. Robison to piece a band of E^L on this
allotment for the season 1939. This proceedure will be watched with interest
to see the affect oil the forage as compared to the same forage under use by
drys later in the season.
The grazing instruction for last season were followed very closely by
the herder on this allotment. However, this band in particular is salted oh
water as has been pointed out before. The aguements extended by Mr. Robison
for this practice are interesting and bear some weight, which h^s been my
reason for not forc*ing the issue in this practice. At the training camp
some two or three hours was given to the discussion of this practice and
while the majority were sgainst it same were still of the opinion that in
some cases on dry range with little water it had its merits. I would apprec-
iate the op^Vtunity to discuss this further with you and getting your opinion
on this practice before the opening of the 1939 season.
Big Wash Allotment ;S&G:- J.P. JOHanson permitte preference 410 head.
This allotment was not used during the 1938 grazing season. Mr.
Johanson paying part of the grazing fee - this later cancelled because of
check being returned for lack of funds.
Some use should be made of this allotment by temporary permit to
some qualified applicant if Mr. Johanson is going to take nona-use»
This range is rough and hard to graze but sufficient feed is on hand
to carry the permitted number very well. It i3 my intention to issue a free
use permit to both Mr. Calico and Mr. Osborne residing in the Big Wash for
the grazing of a few head of their Milk stock in the North add South Forks
of this canyon.
Mr. Osborn has been talking of a special use permit for the 40 acres
of segebrush land lying between his two homesteads. This land is of little
608
value as agricultural land and the permittee on this allotment can not use
this section so I can see no reason why such a peimit cannot be granted Mr,
Osborn. It might be suggested that this permit be granted with out charge
in exchange for the use of the portion of his patented lend that the road
pa^es over going up the North Fork of the Big Tash. This road was built
by Thomas Dearden in co-operation with the F.S. some years ago and the old
man claime3 he protested it going over his land and so posted it agaiife use
for some time but got no place with it.
Snake Creek Allotment C&H Josheph Gruden permittee 30 head preference.
The construction of the zone drift fence in this canyon certainly
helped in the handling of the cattle in this allotment. The fence held the
stock below Granite Basin until the 25th of June when it was opened and the •
stock allowed above. I would say that Jfchis has solved our problems inregard
to the control of this stock on the lower range until the upper range is
more able to carry the cattle on thenSAsBr meadows. Mr. Gruden grazed 20
head on the forest this past season. JHe intends to take up his winter permit
and run the full 30 head in Snake Creek the 3ee3on of 1938.
Mr. Grudens stock are only avenge grade stuff and he is very attentive
in handling the stock to the best advantage of both* the range and the cattle.
He has been salting on the slopes where he tried to get the stock out of the
bottoms. No salting plan has been worked out for this permit and no* doubt
such should be done at the first opportunity.
I feel that Mr. Gruden does every thing that js asked or suggested
and feel that the cattle should be taken up into the South Fork every chance
that he has. he has agreed to this and I'm sure will make every effort to
get them up in that section and try and hold them if possible. The feed is
good but they have never toeen up there before this year.
Snake Creek Allotment S&G:- Albin C. Kirkeby permittee, preference 525 hesd,
Mr. Kirkeby again took non-use on this permit for the season 1938,
Mr. John Ausquey run the Kirkeby sheep under lease on his private lands and
on the P.D.
You will recall that the advisory board of the Nevada Forest Woolgrowers
Assfcfi were to have met last August and recommendeTT what should be done on
Kirkebys request that he be moved back on the west side CdJ the mountain so
he could operate his sheep closer to his home ranch. This meeting was set
and then in a last talk with Kirkeby he agreed that there wasH*t much use
to him move*ing over because the range he formerly held is very rough and
has little feed. He agreed -see my memo on this- that he would Hj&ixraHkx
withdraw his request for change of allotments and by the spring of 1939
would give us definite information concerning his intentions to use the
Sneke Creek Range. In o telephone conversation with him this morning he
said he would have someidtidtidtiiabt decision on the matter within 10 days and
would advise us of anv arrangement he would make for the use of this range.
609
I believe that with the possible ^rception of Granite Basin the Snake
Creek allotment is in quite good shape as a result* of the Kirkeby non-use
but I do believe that some definite use should be taken of the range by
Kirkeby in 1939 or the permit cancelled and consideration given to some of
the many other qualified applicants who can and would make some use of this
range .
Snake Creek Allotment S&G :- it'ayne B. Gonder permittee preference 545 head.
As you are acquainted, Mr. Geonder bought the Bellander permit and
cheep with grazing rights in this allotment. These sheep were run incommon
with 180 head of Geo T. Baker (under temporary permit). They had a good
herder and he followed current grazing insfcnlctions carefully. I had them
use part of the Baker Creek allotment and the 710 head in this herd certainly
did nicely with very little loss. However, granite 3asin which has been
subjected to several flash storm during the past three or four years should
be given still added rest and I would suggest that, if possible, grazing be
restricted in this unit for one or two pears. If this is not practicil at
least defer its use and then give it only light use, that all plants might
get a better start in the loose granitic soil ttxxk which prevails through
out the unit.
Merchum Allotment S&G:- B&ker, P.W. pormitte with 205 head preference and
Fielding, John with preference of 100 head.
As discussed in last years report these sheep were mixed with 635
head of R. A. Yellands and run part time on the Merchum Allotment and pert ions
of the Baker Creek Allotment, and on the Miller Basin section of the Yeilind
Allotment on Mt. Moriah Division (see discussion of this under Yelland Allotmert)
There was a good dry herder with this band of 1114 (290 temp to Bake*
205 regular, 100 Fielding and 6#5 Yelland — Baker didnot run his full number
see 874-12) and it is felt that instructions were followed very carefully.
More use was gotten of the low range on this allotment than for sometime and
it is hoped that these permittees will again run dry sheep next year to take
advantage of the dry low feed that is available on this allotment and the
lower part of the Baker Allotment.
It is suggested that Mr. Fielding be given some renge for his permit.
He has had this small permit for some time but has never been allotted any
particular piece of range to care for them. He has been running under the
Kirkeby non-use in Snake Creek and the Baker Creek ran^ vhen it was not used.
I would recommend that this be taken into consideration in the reallocation
of the Baker Creek Range and permit.
Pole Canyon Allotment C&H:- Fielding 8, Christopherson 20, Baker G.T 20head
This allotment was yrx used by C&H for the better part of June and
July after which most of the stock "ere removed to the Baker Allotment.
The stock were not put on the forest until about the 25th of May and all
610
were held south of the Creek and below the Narrows in Baker Creek until
about the 10th of June when the zone fence in Pole cenyon woe opened and the
cattle piaced within the lower unit. This held them for one week when
they were placed above the middle zone fence. There was 25 head of steers
ahd 34 head of cows and heifers with some young stuff in this csnyon and
they soon cleaned out the meadows but would not get out on the side hills
very far though the grass was knee deep. Salt wes put out and the stock
driven out to it but they would not get cut and rustle. Cut side of the
steers most of this stuff is of dairy stock end just didn't want to get
out where it wa3 r«ough. Mr. Baker asked for and was given permission
to seperate his stuff and put them in Baker Cfeek proper. This left the
steers only in Pole Canyon.They wore watched for ebout two weeks and were
starting to lose weight but would still refuse to get out and rustle on
the side hills wbere there was lots of feed. Accordingly, they were moved
into the main fork of Baker Creek for the balance of the season and did
vary nicely. All this stock were taken up the main fork as far as the
Deishman Cabin and grazed out all the meadow in this fork which is the
first time this feed has been taken for many years.
From my observations the past two seasons I would say that Pole
Canyon will not carry more than thirty head for the main portion of the
summer. Therefore it is necessary to allocate range in Baker Creek for
the balance of the stock under pemmit. My intent is to call these permittees
together in the near future and see which of them would like to take Pole
Canyon and what disposition will be made in responsibility to silt, ride
and care for this community herd. To this end it would be very nice if
we had an Ass'n of the Cattle uermitees on this District.
If we find that kfrix the class of stock run in fole Canyon will not
utilize the feed on the side hills it i3 my recommendation that we allow
some sheep to graze this area in the fall before going off the mountain.
After the cattle went out sheep from the Merchum allotment grazed Pole Can. this yeaj
Baker Creek Allotment S&G Last preference wes for 710 head
Since the permit covering the use of this allotment was revocated
this past season no use was taken under such permit. However, I had the
Snake Creek herd take the South Fork and the Cattle from Pole canyon take
all the bottoms and the Main Fork along with Timber Creofc unit. The
Robison Sheep from the Strawberry Allotment was allowed to take the portion
North of the Creek with out watering at the creeft eicepp at one place above
the camp ground above the forks.
My recommendation is that at least 350 head of this permit be retain-
ed for range protection and that a portion be set aside for the cattle that
have been given permits in the past four years with out the allocation of
range other than the Pole Canyon Allotment which wrs a part of the Baker
Creek permit. Also range for the 100 head of John Fielding should be taken
care of in this shift. I would suggest that all or part of Can Young Canyon
unit be used for this purpose as well as the lower Baker Creek unit.
611
Aa discussed before I would like to see all or pert of the Miller
cattle brought over here where there is feed and where they can run with
cattle and not be in competition with the sheep on the Miller Basin Units,
Last spring at the suggestion of Mr. Larson I placed a small unit
called the Big Pine unit, the section just ebove the Cave's and draining
into Lehman Creek, in the Strawberry Allotment of the Robieon Bros,
This leaves the following units of the Baker Creek Allotment:
The Bench Unit
South Fork Unit
(The bottoms of ths Main i'ork good for C&Jtl oi;ly)
Bolter Creek Unit
£( i. til L6ker Crec'- Unit
L ■ . -;■ Baker Creel Uiuil
Fold Canyon having ulrsady been taken from the Dak's r Allotment and
oat up aa a C&H Allotment*
I eertiarily hope that hhis matter can be settled this next season
so that we can get rid of so much temporary permits sik. settle down to man-
ageaie:,'it based on known numbets end range*
S t r e wh o r r y Alio tmr n t^ 5&0 : ~ Robison Bros, and G. 3. Rob i son Estate
There wore 1143 head of S/L put on this allotment for the full season
end then an additional week was granted in the fall.
The grazing .Instructions for the current season as approved by the
Supervisor were followed out very closely. In fact more use was made of the
low range than had been planned and this was taken fogm the grazing lima
alloted in the Lohman Baein Unit, Lehman Basin Unit v,as grazed lightly
and you will recall your inspection of this area and the condition in which
it wa3 left. The amount of fued left this season was quite a little more?
than aruB left last year.
It is mgr intentions to work out a plan with Mr. Robison which will
allow thy retirement of half or all the Lehman Basin ulj&t for the 2939 aea-
soiie I believe this can be d*ne voluntarily on the part of Mr, Robison
with cut the necesa&fcy of taking the 5 jo cut which we have held out in
case it was necessary to make a reduction to get proper use and manaCTaente
Mr. Robison has boon more than willing to do a3 we have asked although
he is insistent that he does not want to do anything that will mean a cut
in numbers or reduction in the a7erae;e weifelit of his lambs.
You will recall that a portion of thw Strawberry Crook proper acemed
to ha/e little use* Mr. Robison,.. avoids this area aa considerable losa has
resulted from poison in this ^gfesu A3 stated i.u my memo after inspecting
612
this urea I can aot toil what this might be and it is nj understanding that
ClawsoD of the Bureau of Animal Industry has bseii out and made sn titteupt
bo isolate the plants or plant causing the trouble but he res unable »o do do,
/.aide from the area discussed, in Lehman Cieek , I fa&l thet the Straw-
berry allotment is in pretty fair shape and Doyle has agreed to 1 ignis;: up
on all the high country if we can work out a plan that will provide hia suf-
icient feed. This I feel we can work out if climatic conditions are at all
favorable*
Weaver Creek Allotment S&G:- Robsion Bros, part of the 2550 preference.
Mr. Robison put 1139 head of E/L on this allotment for the full season
and was granted an additional weeks use at the close of the regular season.
The Robisons have considerable range outside the forest boundary which
is just as high and just as good summer range and it is their habit to use
this range while grazing that portion of the forest range next to theie
private and EE Taylor Grazing lands. They water on the forest but spend the
better part of one month on and off the forest in the north portion of the
Snake Division. This herd has been doing this for some time yet all the
grazing time is charged against the Weaver Creek Allotment. On your next
trip over this section you will note that some of the range outside i3 even
higher and better range than that in the forest.
This herd has considerable low range in VJeaver Creek and made good
use of this renge this season. This is the first year for four years that
the Robisons have come onto the forest at the opening of the grazing season
with this herd. It has been their policy to get 3ome of their outside range
first and them move on to the Weaver Creek unit about the 1st of July. Us-
ually by this time the feed is pretty well dried up on this low bench and
they have been getting little use of the area. However, they tooft most of
it this year before it started to burn. It is my intentions to heve them
follow the same procepdure next year if the seasons are et all similar.
I have not found any critical areas on this allotment and feel that
with contiued care thi3 range should improve under the present plan of man-
agement if the seasons are at all favorable.
Shingle Creek Allotment S&G:- Robison Bros, part of the 2550 preference.
Robison Bros, placed 832 E/L on this allotment for the full season.
They were granted an additional weeks use at the close of the regular sea-
son.
613
This allotment is well watered but is very rocky. The very nature
of the soil doesnot support a very luxuriant growth of forege but there is
considerable browse on the lower range and the sheep on this allotment do
quite well considering the type of rpnge they are run upon. The current
Grazing instructions were followed to the best of my knowledge end and
inspection of a portions of this range on the 23rd of October indicated
that the utiliztion was not too great for the type cover. It is thought
that the very character of this allotment will protect it in a large part
from much abusive use. However, the Shingle Creek Be3in must be watched
that its use does not become too heavy as this is perhaps the most
choice portion of the allotment but at the present does not indicate that
it is being given too heavy use.
Mr. Robison is very interested in the welfare of his sheep and I
have every reason to believe is willing to co-operate in any reasonable
menagment plan that will insure him the maximum amount of feed over the
longest period of time. I feel that I have gained his confidence and
that he is willing to co-operate in working out ju3t such plans.
A summary of the amount of use taken by the Robison sheep follows ;-
Actual U3e — — Shingle Creek add Weaver Creek Allotments 6081 sheep Mo.
Actual use — — Strawberry and Lexington Allotments 6772 sheep Mo.
total Actual Use 12,853 sheep Mo.
Permitted sheep Months Robison Bro3 2550 preference
G. S. Robison Estate. 1755 preference
Total 4305 preference
Total permitted sheep Months use equals 12,915 sheep Mo.
Every effort will be made to continue close inspection of thaae
allotments and the plans will be revised annualLas need is indicated from
such inspections.
Shingle Creek Allotment C&H:- D.R.Kerr permittee 22 head pr«ference.
This case has been discussed some what under trespass and until
the proposed Spring Valley Drift Fence is completed nothing but a good
deal of riding will prevent much trespass by the Kerr, and Robison Stock
on this range. teJ4£etfc'
614
The bad part about the whole thing in this case is that the great-
est amount of trespass takes place in the early spring when no stock should
be on the allotment at all. These cattle drift up with the snow and
new growth and considerable damage is done to what little feed there is
on the portion of the Shingle Greek Allotment that these cattte graze.
I have suggested tagging permitted stock in order to give a better
idea of the amount of trespass on this allotment but it was thought that
this might not be so practical and might work even a greater hardship
on the permittee than the present situation does.
Strawberry Allotment C&H;- G. S. Robison -Estate 19 head preference.
The cattle run under this permit have for the. past two years taken
so little feed that the bottom hardly indicates that they have been around
but in a few spots where they have bedded out considerable. Neither year
has the permit been filled nor the permitted number oj* cow months taken.
However, it is the intention of Mr. Robison to fill this permit this cOm-
ing season.
Because of the area in lower Strawberry that the sheep do not take
due to poison the cattle have plenty of feed. Mr. Robison is of the b9±b*
opinion that if many more heed were put in they would drift up into upper
Strawberry as they formerliy did when around fifty head were run in this
canyon. However, if the demand is sufficient I feel that ten to twenty
head additional could be pla*ced in this canyon with out any serious dif-
iculty.
The fiobison sheep get quite a little ..useof the bottoms when
they come through the second time. However, this year T estimated that
the use of these meadows did not average more than about 30 per cent.
G, Management, Annual Report, Nevada, December 10, 1938, S.D. Warner, Forest Ranger, Historical Files,
USFS, Ely.
615
APPENDIX Z
LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL MONUMENT,
PROCLAMATION (NO. 1618), JANUARY 24, 1922
BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
A PROCLAMATION
[No. 1618— Jan. 24, 1922 — 42 Stat. 2260]
Whereas, certain natural caves, known as the Lehman Caves, which are
situated upon partly surveyed lands within the Nevada National Forest in
the State of Nevada, are of unusual scientific interest and importance, and
it appears that the public interests will be promoted by reserving these caves
with as much land as may be necessary for the proper protection thereof, as
a National Monument.
Now, therefore, I, Warren G. Harding, President of the United
States of America, by virtue of the power in me vested by section two of the
Act of Congress approved June eight, nineteen hundred and six, entitled,
"An Act for the preservation of American antiquities", do proclaim that there
are hereby reserved from all forms of appropriation under the public land
laws, subject to all prior valid adverse claims, and set apart as a National
Monument, all tracts of land in the State of Nevada shown as the Lehman
Caves National Monument on the diagram forming a part hereof.
The reservation made by this proclamation is not intended to prevent the
use of the lands for National Forest purposes under the proclamation es-
tablishing the Nevada National Forest, and the two reservations shall both
be effective on the land withdrawn but the National Monument hereby es-
tablished shall be the dominant reservation and any use of the land which
interferes with its preservation or protection as a National Monument is
hereby forbidden.
Warning is hereby given to all unauthorized persons not to appropriate,
injure, deface, remove, or destroy any feature of this National Monument,
or to locate or settle on any of the lands reserved by this proclamation.
In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the. seal of
the United States to be affixed.
Done at the City of Washington this twenty-fourth day of January, in
the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and twenty-two,
[seal] and of the Independence of the United States of America the
one hundred and forty-sixth.
Warren G. Harding.
By the President :
Charles E. Hughes,
Secretary of State.
617
FOREST SERVICE US DEPARTMENTOF AGRICULTURE
LEHMAN CAVE NATIONAL MONUMEN1
tvithin
NEVADA NATIONAL FOREST
Part/y surveyed Totvnsnip /J A/or/n-f?ange 69 £ost
A/£l/ADA
Mf: Diob/o Base and ' Afer/cf/on
„ _ A/at/'ona/ Monument Boundary
■Sec 9
Unsurveycd
Sec, /o
/^arf/y Surveyed
See. 16
t/nsurveyed
Area S9S oj Acres
-AM'-Q
/-7-iZ
0/A6/T/1Sf r^O/?Af/A'G /< <W7" OF P/fOCl/IMAT/ON ff/ITfO dslA/VARY <?«, /9Z2
618
APPENDIX AA
AN ACT FOR THE PRESERVATION OF AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES,
APPROVED JUNE 8, 1906 (34 STAT. 225)
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa-
tives of the United States of America in Congress assem-
bled, That any person who shall appropriate, excavate,
injure, or destroy any historic or prehistoric ruin or
monument, or any object of antiquity, situated on lands
owned or controlled by the Government of the United
States, without the permission of the Secretary of the
department of the Government having jurisdiction over
the lands on which said antiquities are situated, shall,
upon conviction, be fined in a sum of not more than
five hundred dollars or be imprisoned for a period of
not more than ninety days, or shall suffer both fine and
imprisonment, in the discretion of the court. (U.S.C.,
title 16, sec. 433.)
Sec. 2. That the President of the United States is
hereby authorized, in his discretion, to declare by public
proclamation historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric
structures, and other objects of historic or scientific in-
terest that are situated upon the lands owned or con-
trolled by the Government of the United States to be
national, monuments, and may reserve as a part thereof
parcels of land, the limits of which in all cases shall be
confined to the smallest area compatible with the proper
care and management of the objects to be protected:
Provided, That when such objects are situated upon a ,
tract covered by a bona fide unperfected claim or held in ■
private ownersnip, the tracts, or so much thereof as may
be necessary for the proper care and management of the
object, may be relinquished to the Government, and the
Secretary of the Interior is hereby authorized to accept
the relinquishment of such tracts in behalf of the Gov-
ernment of the United States. (U.S.C., title 16, sec. 431.)
Sec. 3. That permits for the examination of ruins, the
excavation of archaeological sites, and the gathering of
objects of antiquity upon the lands under their respective
jurisdictions may be granted by the Secretaries of the
Interior, Agriculture, and War to institutions which they
may deem properly qualified to conduct such examina-
tion, excavation, or gathering, subject to such rules and
regulations as they may prescribe: Provided, That the
examinations, excavations, and gatherings are undertaken
"for the benefit of reputable museums, universities, col-
leges, or other recognized scientific or educational insti-
tutions, with a view to increasing the knowledge of such
objects, and that the gatherings shall be made for per-
manent preservation in public museums. (U.S.C., title
16, sec. 432.)
Sec. 4. That the Secretaries of the departments afore-
said shall make and publish from time to time uniform
rules and regulations for the purpose of carrying out
the provisions of this act. (U.S.C., title 16, sec. 432.)
619
UNIFORM RULES AND REGULATIONS
Prescribed by the Secretaries of the Interior, Agriculture, and War to Carry
Out the Provisions of the "Act for the Preservation of American Antiqui-
ties," approved June 8, 1906 (34 Stat. 225)1
1. Jurisdiction over ruins, archeological sites, historic and pre-
historic monuments and structures, objects of antiquity, historic land-
marks, and other objects of historic or scientific interest, shall be
exercised under the act by the respective Departments as follows :
By the Secretary of Agriculture over lands within the exterior
limits of forest reserves, by the Secretary of War over lands within
the exterior limits of military reservations, by the Secretary of the
Diterior over all other lands owned or controlled by the Government
of the United States, provided the Secretaries of War and Agri-
culture may by agreement cooperate with the Secretary of the In-
terior in the supervision of such monuments and objects covered by
the act of June 8, 1906, as may be located on lands near or adjacent
to forest reserves and military reservations, respectively.
2. No permit for the removal of any ancient monument or struc-
ture which can be permanently preserved under the control of the
United States in s^tu, and remain an object of interest, shall be
granted.
3. Permits for the examination of ruins, the excavation of archeo-
logical sites, and the gathering of objects of antiquity will be
granted, by the respective Secretaries having jurisdiction, to repu-
table museums, universities, colleges, or other recognized scientific
or educational institutions, or to their duly authorized agents.
4. No exclusive permits shall be granted for a larger area than
the applicant can reasonably be expected to explore fully and system-
atically within the time limit named in the permit.
5. Each application for a permit should be filed with the Secretary
having jurisdiction, and must be accompanied by a definite outline
of the proposed work, indicating the name of the institution making
the request, the date proposed for beginning the field work, the
length of time proposed to be devoted to it, and the person who will
have immediate charge of the work. The application must also con-
tain an exact statement of the character of the work, whether exami-
nation, excavation, or gathering, and the public museum in which the
collections made under the permit are to be permanently preserved.
The application must be accompanied by a sketch plan or descrip-
tion of the particular site or area to be. examined, excavated, or
searched, so definite that it can be located on the map with reason-
able accuracy.
6. No permit will be granted for a period of more than three years,
but if the work has been diligently prosecuted under the permit, the
time may be extended for proper cause upon application.
7. Failure to begin work under a permit within six months after it
is granted, or- failure to diligently prosecute such work after it has
been begun, shall make the permit void without any order or pro-
ceeding by the Secretary having jurisdiction.
8. Applications for permits shall be referred to the Smithsonian
Institution for recommendation.
9. Every permit shall be in writing and copies shall be trans-
mitted to the Smithsonian Institution and the field officer in charge
of the land involved. The permittee will be furnished with a copy
of these rules and regulations.
10. At the close of each season's field work the permittee shall re-
port in duplicate to the Smithsonian Institution, in such form as its
secretary may prescribe, and shall prepare in duplicate a catalogue of
the collections and of the photographs made during the season,
indicating therein such material, if any, as may be available for
exchange.
620
11. Institutions and persons receiving permits for excavation shall,
after the completion of the work, restore the lands upon which they
have worked to their customary condition, to the satisfaction of the
field officer in charge. ,
12. All permits shall be terminable at the discretion of the becre-
tary having jurisdiction.
13- The field officer in charge of land owned or controlled by the
Government of the United States shall, from time to time, inquire
and report as to the existence, on or near such lands, of ruins and
archeological sites, historic or .prehistoric ruins or monuments,
objects of antiquity, historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric
structures, and other objects of historic or scientific interest.
14. The field officer in charge may at all times examine the permit
of any person or institution claiming privileges granted in accord-
ance with the act and these rules and regulations, and may fully
examine all work done under such permit.
15. All persons duly authorized by the Secretaries of Agriculture,
War, and Interior may apprehend or cause to be arrested, as pro-
vided in the act of February 6, 1905 (33 Stat. 700) 2 any person
or persons who appropriate, excavate, injure, or destroy any historic
or prehistoric ruin or monument, or any object of antiquity on lands
under the supervision of the Secretaries of Agriculture, War, and
Interior, respectively.
16. Any object of antiquity taken, or collection made, on lands
owned or controlled by the United States, without a permit, as pre-
scribed by the act and these rules and regulations, or there taken or
made, contrary to the terms of the permit, or contrary to the act and
these rules and regulations, may be seized wherever found and at
any time, by the proper field officer or by any person duly authorized
by the Secretary having jurisdiction, and disposed of as the Secre-
tary shall determine, by deposit in the proper national depository or
otherwise.
IT. Every collection made under the authority of the act and of
these rules and regulations shall be preserved in the public museum
designated in the permit and shall be accessible to the public. No
such collection shall be removed from such public museum without
the written authority of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, and then only to another public museum, where it shall be
accessible to the public; and when any public museum, which is a
depository of any collection made under the provisions of the act
and these rules and regulations, shall cease to exist, every such collec-
tion in such public museum shall thereupon revert to the national
collections and be placed in the proper national depository.
Washington, D.C., December £8, 1906.
The foregoing rules and regulations are hereby approved in tripli-
cate and, under authority conferred by law on the Secretaries of the
Interior, Agriculture, and War, are hereby made and established, to
take effect immediately.
E. A. Hitchcock,
Secretary of the Interior.
James Wilson,
Secretary of Agriculture.
Wm. H. Taft,
Secretary of War*
File No. 12-1, J-V, Central Files, 1907-36, Record Group 48, Records of the Secretary of the Interior, National
Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
621
APPENDIX BB
MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES - LEHMAN CAVES NATIONAL MONUMENT, 1977
Natural Resources on the Surface
To conserye scenic resources as well as the pinyon- Juniper, sagebrush,
and other native ecological conmunities of the park's Great Basin
environment free, to the greatest degree possible, from the adverse
effects of human disturbance.
To eliminate the adverse effects of trespass grazing on the
park's vegetation and habitat values.
To ensure that hunting and the harvesting of pinyon nuts are
confined to areas outside the park's boundaries.
Natural Resources in the Caves
To conserve the biota and protect the geological features of the
Lehman Caves and to minimize the adverse effects of visitor use and
cave exploration on these resources.
To manage the developed portion of the cave system for inter-
pretation of cave features and cave life, and to manage the
Gypsum annex for professional exploration and research.
Cultural Resources
To identify, evaluate, protect, and preserve the park's cultural
resources in accordance with legislative and executive requirements
and the Service's historic preservation policies.
To protect and preserve the archeological resources in the caves
and on the surface.
623
To protect and preserve the Rhodes Cabin and the historic
setting of Lehman's Cave Ranch,
Recreational Use
To make available opportunities for day-use recreational activities,
such as picnicking, cave touring, and hiking, that are compatible
with protection and perpetuation of ,the park's natural and cultural
resources.
To encourage the greatest possible public use of the caves
and still ensure a high quality visitor experience as well
as the necessary protection of cave features from theft and
trailside damage.
Interpretation
To foster public understanding and appreciation of (1) the geo-
logical evolution and ecology of the Lehman Caves, particularly
the processes responsible for the formation of its great variety
of highly decorated cave features, and (2) the ecology of the
native plant and animal life of the Great Basin.
To provide secondary interpretive emphasis on the use of the
caves by Native Americans, the early white settlement and
development of the park area, and the history of cave explora-
tion and research.
Visitor and Bnployee Safety
To promote awareness of hazards associated with use of the park and
to ensure the safety of visitors and employees.
624
To eliminate possible threats to the safety of employees due
to prolonged exposure to levels of radon in the caves.
Acquisition of Information
To secure adequate information to facilitate management of park
resources and to ensure the safety of visitors and employees.
To evaluate the levels of radon in the caves as well as the
effects of radon on public health and welfare.
To secure information on the effects of artificial lighting
on cave features in order to facilitate improved resource
protection and management.
To secure information on the resources (vegetation, soils,
animals, minerals and groundwater) in order to facilitate
improved interpretation and management.
Cooperation
To cooperate with other agencies, private organizations, and members
of the public to (l) promote use and development of lands in the
park and its vicinity in a manner that minimizes adverse effects
on esthetics and the quality of park resources, and (2) ensure
that development of visitor services and recreational facilities
is conducted in a regional context.
To cooperate with the Forest Service in coordinating the
management of the park and the surrounding Humboldt National
Forest in such areas as maintenance, visitor information,
recreational development, employee housing, and wastewater
treatment.
625
To cooperate with the Nevada State Department of Fish and Game
to ensure long-term perpetuation of native wildlife populations
in the park and its vicinity.
To cooperate with the White Pine County Chamber of Commerce
in encouraging public visitation to the park.
Development
To ensure that development is the minimum necessary to facilitate
administration and public use of the park.
To ensure that adequate housing is available for park employees.
To ensure a high quality, dependable water supply to the park
through adequate facilities for water supply and water storage.
To ensure a high qvality and sufficient wastewater treatment
facility is maintained for visitors and residents.
"Statement for Management," Lehman Caves National Monument, January 10, 1977, pp. 17-20, Files, Technical
Information Center, Denver Service Center.
626
APPENDIX CC
PRIMARY THEMES FOR THE GREAT BASIN
NATURAL
1. Present Landforms
a.
Plains, Plateaus, Mesas
b.
Mountain Systems
c.
Works of Volcanism
d.
Hot Water Phenomena
e.
River Systems and Lakes
f.
Work of Glaciers
g-
Lakeshores and Islands
h.
Earthquake Phenomena
i.
Caves and Springs
Geologic History
a. Cambrian to Lower Silurian
b. Silurian and Devonian
c. Mississippian through Permian
d. Oligocene through Recent
Terrestrial Ecosystem
a. Desert Communities
b. Dry Coniferous Forest and Woodland
c. Boreal Forest
d. Tundra
Aquatic Ecosystems
a. Streams
b. Lakes and Ponds
B. CULTURAL
Original Inhabitants
a. Earliest Americans
Westward Expansion
a. Great Explorers of the West
b. Western Trails and Travelers
c. Mining Frontier
d. Cattlemen's Empire
627
STUDY AREA EVALUATION VALUES
1. Great Basin Primary Themes (natural, cultural)
2. Recreation and Visitor Service
3. Manageable Geographic Unit (complete Basin and Range)
4. Location (proximity to major population centers)
5. Visual Quality
6. Science/Research
7. Supplementary Significant Features
8. Mining and Energy
9. Agriculture
628
APPENDIX DD
PUBLIC LAW 99-565, OCTOBER 27, 1986 (100 STAT. 3181) -
ACT ESTABLISHING GREAT BASIN NATIONAL PARK
An Act
To fblkh a Great Baain National Park in th* Stat* at Norada, and for other Oct. 27. 1986
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled.
SHORT TITLE
Section 1. This Act may be known as the "Great Basin National
Park Act of 1986".
ESTABLISHMENT
Sec. 2. (a) In order to preserve for the benefit and inspiration of
the people a representative segment of the Great Basin of the
Western United States possessing outstanding resources and signifi-
cant geological and scenic values, there is hereby established the
Great Basin National Park (hereinafter in this Act referred to as the
"park").
(b) The park shall consist of approximately seventy-six thousand
acres, as depicted on the map entitled "Boundary Map, Great Basin
National Park, Nevada." numbered NA-GB 20,017, and dated Octo-
ber 1986. The map shall be on file and available for public inspection
in the offices of the National Park Service, Department of the
Interior, and the Office of the Superintendent, Great Basin National
Park, Nevada.
(c) Within 6 months after the enactment of this Act, the Secretary
of the Interior (hereinafter in this Act referred to as the "Sec-
retary") shall file a legal description of the park designated under
this section with the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs of
the United States House of Representatives and with the Committee
on Energy and Natural Resources of the United States Senate. Such
legal description shall have the same force and effect as if included
in this Act, except that the Secretary may correct clerical and
typographical errors in such legal description and in the map
referred to in subsection (a). The legal description shall be on file
and available for public inspection in the offices of the National
Park Service, Department of the Interior.
(dXl) The Lehman Caves National Monument, designated on
January 24, 1922, by Presidential proclamation under the authority
contained in the Act of June 8, 1906 (34 Stat 225) is hereby
abolished and the lands incorporated within the Great Basin Na-
tional Park. Any reference in any law, map, regulation, document,
record, or other paper of the United States to such national monu-
ment shall be deemed to be a reference to Great Basin National
Park.
(2) Any funds available for purposes of the national monument
shall be available for purposes of the park.
(S. 2506)
Groat Baein
National Park
Act of 1986.
16 USC 410mm
note.
16 USC 410mm.
Public
information.
Public
informauon.
629
ADMINISTaATION
Sec 3. (a) The Secretary shall administer the park in accordance
ftfe and fishing, ^th this Act and with the provisions of law generally applicable to
JJusc units °* tbe "■*"*"»! park system. winding the Act entitled "An
4l0xnm-l. Act to establish a National Park Service, and for other purposes,"
approved August 26. 1916 (39 Stat 535; 16 U.S.C 1-4). The Secretary
shall protect, manage, and administer the park in such manner as to
conserve and protect the scenery, the natural, geologic historic, and
archaeological resources of the park, including fish and wildlife and
to provide for the public use and enjoyment of the same in such a
manner as to perpetuate these qualities for future generations.
(b) The Secretary shall permit fishing on lands and waters under
his jurisdiction within the park in accordance with the applicable
laws of the United States and the State of Nevada, except that he
may designate zones where, and periods when, no fishing may be
permitted for reasons of public safety. Except in emergencies, any
regulations prescribing such restrictions relating to fishing, shall be
put into effect only after consultation with the appropriate State
agency having jurisdiction over fishing activities.
(c) After notice and opportunity for public hearing, the Secretary
shall prepare a management plan for the park. The Secretary shall
submit such plan to the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs
of the United States House of Representatives and with the Commit-
tee on Energy and Natural Resources of the United States Senate
within three years after the enactment of this Act. Such plan may
be amended from time to time. The plan shall include, but not be
limited to, provisions related to grazing within the park to the
extent permitted under subsection (e) and provisions providing for
the appropriate management of fish and wildlife and fishing within
the park in accordance with subsection (b). Such provisions shall be
adopted only after consultation with the appropriate State agency
having jurisdiction over fish and wildlife.
(d) Subject to valid existing rights. Federal lands and interests
therein, within the park, are* withdrawn from disposition under the
Eublic lands laws and from entry or appropriation under the mining
iws of the United States, from the operation of the mineral leasing
laws of the United States, and from operation of the Geothermal
30 use iooi Steam Act of 1970, as amended.
DOte (e) Subject to such limitations, conditions, or regulations as he
may prescribe, the Secretary shall permit grazing on lands within
the park to the same extent as was permitted on such lands as of
July 1, 1985. Grazing within the park shall be administered by the
National Park Service.
(f) At the request of the permittee, or at the initiative of the
Secretary, negotiations may take place at any time with holders of
valid existing grazing permits on land within the park, for an
exchange of all or part of their grazing allotments for allotments
outside the park. No such exchange shall take place if, in the
opinion of the affected Federal land management agency, the
exchange would result in overgrazing of Federal lands.
(g) TflTi sting water-related range improvements inside the park
may be maintained by the Secretary or the persons benefitting from
them, subject to reasonable regulation by the Secretary.
(h) Nothing in this Act shall be construed to establish a new
expieas or implied reservation to the United States of any water or
water-related right with respect to the land described in section 2 of
630
this Ace: Provided, That the United States shall be entitled to only
that express or implied reserved water right which may have been
associated with the initial establishment and withdrawal of Hum-
boldt National Forest and the Lehman Caves National Monument
from the public domain with respect to the land described in section
2 of this Act. No provision of this Act shall be construed as authoriz-
ing the appropriation of water, except in accordance with the sub-
stantive and procedural law of the State of Nevada.
(i) In order to encourage unified and cost-effective interpretation
of the Great Basin physiographic region, the Secretary is authorized
and encouraged to enter info cooperative agreements with other
Federal, State, and local public departments and agencies providing
for the interpretation of the Great Basin physiographic region. Such
agreements shall include, but not be limited to, authority for the
Secretary to develop and operate interpretive facilities and pro-
grams on lands and waters outside of the boundaries of such park,
with the concurrence of the owner or administrator thereof.
State and local
(ovarxuneatB.
ACQUISITION OP LAND
Sec. 4. (a) The Secretary may acquire land or interests in land 16 use
within the boundaries of the park by donation, purchase with <i0mm-2.
donated or appropriated funds, or exchange, but no such lands or
interests therein may be acquired without the consent of the owner
thereof. Lands owned by the State of Nevada or any political
subdivision thereof may be acquired only by donation or exchange.
(b) Lands and waters, and interests therein, within the boundaries
of the park which were administered by the Forest Service, United
States Department of Agriculture prior to the date of enactment of
this Act are hereby transferred to the administrative jurisdiction of
the Secretary to be administered in accordance with this Act. The
boundaries of the Humboldt National Forest shall be adjusted
accordingly.
AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS
Sec. 5. fa) Not more than $800,000 are authorized to be appro- 16 USC
priated for development of the park. 4iOmm-3.
(b) Not more than $200,000 are authorized to be appropriated for
acquisition of lands and interests in land within the park
Approved October 27, 1986.
631
APPENDIX EE
NATIONAL REGISTER NOMINATION FORM - OSCEOLA (EAST) DITCH
633
MPS Form 1M00
(Rav MS)
0M6 Mo tOM-OOlf
United States Department of the Interior
National Park Service
National Register of Historic Places
Registration Form
This form is for use in nominating or requesting determinations of eligibility for individual properties or districts. See instructions in Guidelines
for Completing National Register Forms (National Register Bulletin 16). Complete each item by marking "x" in the appropriate box or by entering
the requested information. If an Kern does not apply to the property being documented, enter "N/A" for "not applicable." For functions, styles, materials,
and areas of significance, enter only the categories and subcategories listed in the instructions. For additional space use continuation sheets
(Form 10900a) Type all entries.
1 . Name of Property
historic name Osceola (East) Ditch
other names/site number
2. Location
street & number Great Basin National Park
. HAjnot for publication
city, town Eaker
[X | vicinity
state Nevada code NV county
White Pine
code
033 zip code 89311
3. Classification
Ownership of Property
J private
J public-local
J public-State
l~X] public-Federal
Category of Property
J building(s)
"2 district
I I site
[X~| structure
I I object
Number of Resources within Property
Contributing
Noncontributing
buildings
sites
structures
objects
Total
Name of related multiple property listing:
N/A
Number of contributing resources previously
listed in the National Register Q
4. State/Federal Agency Certification
As the designated authority under the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, I hereby certify that this
I I nomination LJ request for determination of eligibility meets the documentation standards for registering properties in the
National Register of Historic Places and meets the procedural and professional requirements set forth in 36 CFR Part 60.
In my opinion, the property LJ meets LJdoes not meet the National Register criteria. LJSee continuation sheet.
Signature of certifying official
Date
State or Federal agency and bureau
In my opinion,
the property LJ meets
LJ does not meet the National
Register
criteria.
□
See continuation sheet.
Signature of commenting or other official
Date
State or Federal
agency and bureau
5. National Park Service Certification
I, hereby, certify that this property is:
I I entered in the National Register.
I I See continuation sheet.
I I determined eligible for the National
Register. LJ See continuation sheet.
I I determined not eligible for the
National Register.
J removed from the National Register.
I I other, (explain:)
Signature of the Keeper
635
Date of Action
6. Function or Use
Historic Functions (enter categories from instructions) Current Functions (enter categories from instructions)
Indurstry/Proces sing/Ex tract ion-Waterworks Vacant /Not in Use
7. Description
Architectural Classification Materials (enter categories from instructions)
(enter categories from instructions)
foundation N/A
Other:
Water Ditch
Other:
Rock Dam
walls N/A
roof N/A
other Earth Ditch: Wooden Flume: Rock Dam
Describe present and historic physical appearance.
Constructed in 1889-90 by the Osceola Gravel Mining Company, the Osceola (East) Ditch
extended some 18 miles from Lehman Creek on a north-northwesterly course, carrying water
for hydraulic mining operations at Osceola. The ditch included wooden flumes and a
600-foot tunnel and incorporated water from Lehman, Mill, Strawberry, Sage, and Weaver
creeks. Approximately ten miles of the ditch are in Great Basin National" Park. Many
parts of the extant ditch in the park are eroded, overgrown with brush and trees, and
partially filled with rock rubble, while the wooden flume remains are in. a state of
severe deterioration. The eastern portal of the tunnel near the north boundary of the
park in Strawberry Canyon has collapsed.
As part of the Osceola (East) Ditch construction in 1889-90, a rock dam and headgate
were built at Stella Lake in Upper Lehman Canyon to increase the lake's storage capacity
and thus the flow of Lehman Creek. There are extant portions of the rock dam, but there
are no visible headgate remains. The ditch structures and related improvements at the
placer operations in Osceola fell into disuse, disrepair, and decay during the early 1900s
and were destroyed entirely by a fire in the 1940s.
[x~l See continuation sheet
636
ftjfajjjjjjt of Significance
I' L,nfying official has considered the significance of this property in relation to other properties:
O nationally I I statewide fx] locally
Applicable National Register Criteria [Z]a Qb He [Z]d
Criteria Considerations (Exceptions) [Z|A Qb Qc Qd Qe Qf DC
A(»«9 of Significance (enter categories from instructions)
Engineering
Period of Significance
1890-1901
Cultural Affiliation
N/A
Significant Dates
1890-1901
Significant Person
Ji/A
Architect/Builder
Unknown
State significance of property, and justify criteria, criteria considerations, and areas and periods of significance noted above.
The Osceola (East) Ditch is significant on the local level as the most extensive
engineering system of its kind in eastern Nevada, providing an elaborate conveyance
of water required for the development of the hydraulic mining operations at Osceola.
Osceola was the most important and productive mining district in eastern Nevada and
the only predominately gold placer district in White Pine County. During its construction
and immediately after its completion in 1889-90, the ditch received attention and publicity
in nationally-circulating mining periodicals such as the Engineering and Mining Journal
and the Mining and Scientific Press. The ditch was only utilized for its intended purpose
for some eleven years (1890-1901) and never did provide the necessary quantity of water
required to permit the Osceola Gravel Mining Company's hydraulic operations- to reach
their widely-anticipated development and production potential. The engineering work,
however, is an outstanding example of a mining-related water conveyance system designed
to facilitate exploitation of rich placer gold deposits in late nineteenth century
eastern Nevada. Despite the present state of deterioration and decay of the ditch and
related works, it is the only extant example of such an engineering system in eastern
Nevada with the exception of scattered traces of its companion Osceola (West) Ditch.
See continuation sheet
637
9. Major Bibliographical References
1. White Pine News, October 24, 31, 1885; August 17, September 14, 21, October. 12,
November 23, 1889; February 8, April 5, 1890; May 5, 1904; and August 15, 1896.
2. Ely Mining Record, June 8, 1907.
3. "Osceola District, E. & M.J., 1901," File No. 335, Osceola Mining District, Nevada
Mining District Collection, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada,
Reno.
4. Effie 0. Read, White Pine Lang Syne: A True History of White Pine County, Nevada.
Denver, Big Mountain Press, 1965.
Previous documentation on file (NPS):
I I preliminary determination of individual listing (36 CFR 67)
has been requested
Z\ previously listed in the National Register
H previously determined eligible by the National Register
J designated a National Historic Landmark
I I recorded by Historic American Buildings
Survey #
I I recorded by Historic American Engineering
Record #
I~y1 See continuation sheet
Primary location of additional data:
U State historic preservation office
U Other State agency
[~xl Federal agency
I] Local government
D University
□ Other
Specify repository:
Great Basin National Park
10. Geographical Data
Acreage of property Approx. 1-2 acres aggregate square measure
UTM References
ALU I I ■ I ■ ■
J_
_L
Zone Easting
cL_U I I ■
_L
J L
Northing
1,11,:
BLiJ I I ■ I . ■
Zone Easting
dL_U I I . I , ■
Northing
J L
J L
Hxl See continuation sheet
Verbal Boundary Description
Boundary lines follow the line highlighted in yellow on the enclosed USGS quad maps,
Generally, the boundary lines extend about 10 feet on either side of che center line
of the ditch.
H See continuation sheet
Boundary Justification
The boundary includes the Osceola (East) Ditch, its berm banks and associated components
within Great Basin National Park. The Stella Lake Rock Dam is an associated component
of the ditch system.
U See continuation sheet
11. Form Prepared By
name/title Harlan D. Unrau, Historian
organization National Park Service - DSC - TWE
street & number 12795 W. Alameda Parkway
city or town Lakewood
riatp April 3. 1989
telephone 13023 969-2254
State ColorflHn
zip code 80225
638
10«XKa 0MB ******* "° 'WWII
United States Department of the Interior
National, Park Service
National Register of Historic Places
Continuation Sheet
Section number __Z Page — 2 —
The Osceola (East) Ditch was completed, and water from Lehman
Creek passed through to the reservoir near Osceola's Dry Gulch on
July 4, 1890. The total length of the ditch, including flumes and
tunnel, was 95,133 feet, or 18 miles and 93 feet. Total cost of
the ditch's construction was $108,222.65. The ditch had a carrying
capacity of 2,500 miners' inches of water. Together with the
1,000-1,100 miners' inches provided by the 16-mile Osceola (West)
Ditch that had been constructed on the west side of the Snake Range
in 1884-85, the Osceola (East) Ditch was designed to meet the water
requirements of the Osceola Gravel Mining Company for hydraulic
operations on its 712 acres of placer ground at Osceola, nearly 500
of which were patented, in the Dry Gulch area just west of the town
site.
Since 1877 the Osceola Gravel Mining Company, a Salt Lake
City-based firm owned principally by Benjamin Hampton, had been
interested in the Osceola placers, endeavoring to extract gold from
its claims using hydraulic methods similar to those employed in the
California gold fields. In August 1889 the Osceola Gravel Mining
Company was reorganized and its controlling stock sold to the
Osceola Placer Mining Company, a firm that recently had been
incorporated in New Jersey. The directors of the new firm were W.
B. Kunhard and I. A. Harrison of New York and Benjamin Hampton of
Salt Lake City. James H. Marriott was named general superintendent
and had charge of day-to-day operations of the Osceola Gravel
Mining Company which retained its organizational identity.
The ditch portion of the Osceola (East) Ditch was 82,891 feet
in length. Its dimensions were four feet wide in the bottom, two
and a half feet deep in solid ground with sloping sides of a half
to one or an angle of 22 1/2 degrees. The uniform grade of the
ditch was 14 feet per mile, and it had a carrying capacity of
40,000,000 gallons per 24 hours, The excavated material,
consisting of gravel, boulders, loose rock, and solid rock, was
placed on the lower side of the ditch. Altogether, 81,19 8 cubic
yards of material were excavated by blasting or gadding at a cost
of some $58,307.86.
There were 14 main sections of wooden flumes. The flumes were
located in places where it was impracticable to excavate a ditch
such as the sides of "rocky and precipitous mountains". This was
especially true in Lehman Canyon where 3,768 feet of flume had to
be built. The longest single flume section was 2,808 feet and the
shortest 96 feet. The aggregate length of flume was 5,352 feet.
639
m 1M0M 0MB H**0"1 "° »»*»»•
United States Department of the Interior
National Park Service
National Register of Historic Places
Continuation Sheet
Section number __? Page — I —
The dimensions of the wooden flumes were four feet wide and four
feet deep with uniform grade of 32 feet per mile. Considerable
lengths of the flumes had to be supported on trestlework.
There were six drop flumes or chutes along the length of the
Osceola (East) Ditch. The dimensions of these flumes varied
according to the vertical fall at their respective locations. The
total length of the flumes was 6,258 feet with an aggregate
vertical fall of 1,352 feet.
The total length of the main flumes and drop chutes was 11,610
feet, the total cost of which was $21,494.05. This sum included
the cost of four ditch tenders' houses, each 14 X 20 feet and
furnished with bunks and tables, 16 waste gates, and timbers for
trestles, stringers, and ties. The total amount of lumber used in
the flumes was 316,800 feet (board measure). In addition, 28,240
linear feet of hewn timbers were used for stringers, trestle posts,
and ties, the sizes varying from eight to 12 inches in diameter.
The timber used was yellow pine, most of the lumber being cut at
a sawmill near Mount Moriah, although smaller amounts were cut in
sawmills in Baker Creek Canyon and the South Fork of the Big Wash.
The route of the Osceola (East) Ditch was shortened at least
two miles by the excavation of a tunnel "through a projecting spur
of the main mountain range" in Strawberry Canyon (just inside the
north boundary of Great Basin National Park). The tunnel was 632.5
feet long, 5 feet wide, 6.5 feet high, and had a grade of 4 feet.
The tunnel was bored through "fairly solid granite" except at its
approaches where the rock was somewhat decomposed, requiring a few
sets of timbers and lagging". W. I. Aiken of Osceola excavated and
timbered the tunnel under contract at a cost of $5,060.
The total cost of the Osceola (East) Ditch was $108,222.65.
This sum was broken down as follows: Purchase of Lehman Creek water
rights, with ranch and improvements — $10,000; engineering expenses-
-$6,221.99; ditch excavation--$58 ,307.86 ; flume construction —
$21,494.05; tunnel — $5,060; and general expenses for teamsters,
cooks, construction superintendent, etc. In addition and "properly
chargeable to the east-ditch account "was the work of cutting and
draining a small lake [Stella Lake] at the head of Lehman's Canyon,
putting in culvert and gate, constructing cabin, etc." at a cost
of $949.28.
Associated with the construction of the Osceola (East) Ditch
were improvements at the placer mines in Osceola which were outside
the present boundaries of Great Basin National Park. The
640
^0-*0O* (MB A&rv** No 1(04001$
United States Department of the Interior
National Park Service
National Register of Historic Places
Continuation Sheet
Section number 7 Page '!*
distributing reservoir was enlarged some 50 percent in March 1890
by the excavation of nearly 4,000 cubic yards of "cemented gravel"
and rock from the interior and placing it upon the bank. The
enlargement, together with a new gate tower and waste gate, cost
$2,875. Two large-sized giants or monitors (Hoskin-Marysville-
California patent, Size No. 5) having 15-inch inlets and 8-inch
nozzle butts, were added to the plant. The giants, with two 18-
inch water gates and deflectors, cost $900.
Some 1,100 feet of large bedrock sluice was also constructed
at Osceola having dimensions of 60 inches in width and 35 inches
in depth. Since all of the gravel in the existing workings passed
through the sluice it was "strongly built and supported" and
"absolutely tight in the bottom to prevent loss of quicksilver and
gold". The bottoms of the sluice were selected lumber one and
three-quarters inches thick, planed, tongued, and grooved. The
sides of the sluice were doubled, the inner lining consisting of
two-inch plank. Riffle blocks were square timbers 12 inches X 12
inches X 12 inches placed in rows across the bottom and divided by
a two-inch strip, which left an aperture in which the gold could
settle. Total cost of the sluice, which required approximately 80
feet of lumber per lineal foot, was $3,300.
In connection with construction of the sluice a tunnel was
driven some 135 feet through the north end of the bedrock into the
deep channel at a cost of $1,225. The tunnel was 8 feet wide and
seven feet high and bored through solid quartzite.
One set of under-currents was constructed at a point 1,000
feet below the head of the sluice. The set was 24 feet X 48 feet,
divided into four compartments with a grade of 1 in 12 feet, and
cost $385.
Miscellaneous improvements were added to the hydraulic
operations in Osceola. A small pipe line was constructed to
furnish the water to a Pelton wheel for power generation. New
buildings and an electric lighting plant were constructed. Two arc
lights of 2,000 candle-power were erected at the placer, thus
enabling increased hydraulic operations to be conducted at night.
Assessment of Integrity
Despite the decay, disrepair, and deterioration of the Osceola
(East) Ditch remnants within the boundaries of Great Basin National
Park, the components of the water conveyance engineering system
have never been altered, reconstructed, of restored. Thus, the
641
IMOfra Owe Acert** No IOMOOX
United States Department of the Interior
National Park Service
National Register of Historic Places
Continuation Sheet
Section number 7 Page 5
integrity of the system has been affected primarily by neglect,
disuse, and weather. While there are reports that some of the
wooden flume components have been vandalized and used for local
construction, the historic integrity of the ditch has been left
largely unimpaired.
642
EAST DITCH CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS
CROSS-SECTION OF EAST DITCH.
643
SIDE VICW OF FLUMC
's^^&mi^^mmM
Osceola Gravel Mining Company.
644
10-ittK oue Afif*o***> i<a*ooii
United States Department of the Interior
National Park Service
National Register of Historic Places
Continuation Sheet
Section number § Page — 1
Historical Context
The significance of the Osceola (East) Ditch to the placer operations at Osceola was
noted almost immediately. The first full year of placer operations at Osceola using
the waters of both the East and West ditches was 1891. That year hydraulic activity
was begun on May 8, using a 2,000-inch volume of water about seven hours daily. After
May 20 operations commenced "full blast almost throughout the 24 hours," using a 2,000-
inch volume. Later on July 11, 1891, the Engineering and Mining Journal reported:
...Gravel is being boomed off at a much greater rate than ever before, and
prospects are highly encouraging both for water and gold. The ditches hold
well; no accident to either has occurred, and cost of maintaining the east
ditch is very much less than anticipated. Bed rock cleaning was stopped
when the full supply of water began as it takes the present small force of
men to attend to both monitors, which are working most satisfactorily.
Whenever the bedrock is exposed, however, nuggets are picked up. On June 17
the mine was running 24 hours with 2,500 inches (40,000,000 gallons) water,
and the amount was increasing.
Despite the initial glowing reports of the Osceola placer operations, however, gold
production did not meet the expectations of the East Ditch promoters. The gross yield
of the Osceola Gravel Mining Company for the years 1890 and 1891 was only $16,190.67
and $20,223, respectively.
Beginning in 1892 the Osceola gold placer operations were hampered by periodic water
shortages, largely the result of a mild dry winter and leaking ditch wooden flumes. In
September, for instance, the Engineering and Mining Journal reported that the gold
placers were "yielding well at present," but because "of the lack of water, operations
are being carried on under difficulties." But "for this drawback the placers, it is
claimed, would make a rich return." For a time in early 1894 the Osceola Gravel Mining
Company closed down its operations. In July 1895 it was reported that Osceola placer
mines had resumed operations, the "two canals which supply the hydraulics are in use
and 100 men are employed." In August 1896, however, the White Pine News, a county
newspaper, observed that water "for mining purposes is said to be getting so scarce
in Osceola that placers will have to shut down." One month later the Engineering
and Mining Journal noted that the placers had "recently cleared up $12,030 from 24
days' work." There was "much rich gravel, but no water in that vicinity."
Intermittent placer operations continued at Osceola through the 1901 season. The
previous seven years had been mild dry winters, and the water supply in the ditches,
depending primarily on melting snow and springs, became inadequate to meet the needs
of the placers. Water theft, leaky wooden flumes, and legal battles over water rights
contributed to the curtailment of placer operations. By the turn of the century it was
reported that the East and West ditches combined could only provide about 100 miners'
inches of water. Because of the continuing water problems the Osceola placers produced
only some $10,000 worh of gold in 1901.
645
1MWKt OMB ****>* ** !«*<»»•
United States Department of the Interior
National Park Service
National Register of Historic Places
Continuation Sheet
Section number __§ Page — 3
In 1906, after the Osceola placer operations had been shut down for five years, H. S.
Woolley, a mining promoter from New York City, secured the holdings of the nearly
defunct Osceola Placer Mining Company, the parent firm of the Osceola Gravel Mining
Company, and secured an option for water rights on Baker Creek. Upon returning to
New York City, he succeeded in organizing the Nevada Amalgamated Mines and Power
Company with assets of $1,000,000. The new company planned to reconstruct the West
and East ditches, construct a large power plant on Baker Creek to furnish electricity
for operation of the hoists and reduction works, establish three towns, build a railroad
spur from Ely to Osceola, and amass a large labor force to accomplish the work. After
several years, however, the venture proved to be unsuccessful and the project never
materialized.
There is no documentary evidence that the Osceola (East) Ditch was used for placer
mining activities after 1901. The ditch and its components fell into disuse and
decay. During the 1940s a disastrous fire swept through Osceola, destroying the
remnants of the ditch engineering system in that locale.
646
1MaK, OMB Hfpmum No jom-oot»
United States Department of the Interior
National Park Service
National Register of Historic Places
Continuation Sheet
Section number __9 Page _2
5. Biennial Report of the State Engineer, 1909-1910, P. 37 in
Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1911,
25th Session, Vol. 2.
6. Weeks, F.B. "Geology and Mineral Resources of the Osceola Mining
District, White Pine County, Nev," in U.S. Geological Survey,
Bulletin 340, Contributions to Economic Geology, 1907, Part I-
Metals and Nonmetals, Except Fuels. Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1908.
7. "General Mining News-Nevada-White Pine." Engineering and Mining
Journal, XLIV (December 3, 1887), 420.
8. "Official Reports-Osceola Gravel Mining Company." Engineering
and Mining Journal, LI (May 30, 1891), 630-31.
9. "Mining in 1889." Mining and Scientific Press, LX (February 1,
1890), 81.
10. Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register of the
State of Nevada for the Years 1889 and 1890, pp. 35-36, in Appendix
to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1891, 15th
Session.
11. "General Mining News-Nevada-White Pine County." Engineering and
Mining Journal, LII (July 11, 1891), 55.
12. "General Mining News-Nevada-White Pine County." Engineering and
Mining Journal, LII (August 1, 1891), 133.
13. "General Mining News-Nevada-White Pine County." Engineering and
Mining Journal, LII (January 16, 1892), 117.
14. "General Mining News-Nevada-White Pine County." Engineering and
Mining Journal, LIV (September 24, 18 92), 30 4.
15. "General Mining News-Nevada-White Pine County." Engineering and
Mining Journal, LVII (February 17, 1894), 160.
16. "General Mining News-Nevada-White Pine County." Engineering and
Mining Journal, LX (July 13, 1895), 39.
17. "General Mining News-Nevada-White Pine County." Engineering and
Mining Journal, LXII (September 19, 1896), 278.
647
OMB 4WOW* Mb. 1<O4O01§
United States Department off the Interior
National Park Service
National Register of Historic Places
Continuation Sheet
Section number 10 Page
UTM References
Osceola (East) Ditch - Zone 11
Easting
A.
732160
B.
732620
C.
736400
D.
736400
E.
736880
F.
736920
G.
738350
H.
736560
Northing
4327050
4325800
4325800
4324240
4323900
4323410
4322400
4321560
Stella Lake Rock dam - Zone 11
732280 Easting
4320650 Northing
648
I 10-MCK 0MB Afipmrl Mo 1024-001*
United States Department of the Interior
National Park Service
National Register of Historic Places
Continuation Sheet
Section number photos Page 1
Photograph No. 1
Photographer - Harlan D. Unrau
Date - September 1988
Original Negative - Denver Service Center, Western Team
View - Ditch near automobile turnout on Wheeler Peak Scenic
Road; looking north-northeast
Photograph No. 2
Photographer - Harlan D. Unrau
Date - September 1988
Original Negative - Denver Service Center, Western Team
View - Ditch near automobile turnout on Wheeler Peak Scenic
Road; looking south-southwest
Photograph No. 3
Photographer - Harlan D. Unrau
Date - September 1988
Original Negative - Denver Service Center, Western Team
View - Ditch near automobile turnout on Wheeler Peak Scenic
Road; looking north-northeast
Photograph No. 4
Photographer - Harlan D. Unrau
Date - September 1988
Original Negative - Denver Service Center, Western Team
View - West end (Spring Valley Side) of ditch tunnel
Photograph No. 5
Photographer - Harlan D. Unrau
Date - September 1988
Original Negative - Denver Service Center, Western Team
View - West end (Spring Valley Side) of ditch tunnel
649
NPS Fom ifr*»-« OMB Aoprw* Mo IU+001B
United States Department of the Interior
National Park Service
National Register of Historic Places
Continuation Sheet
Section number Photos Page _?
Photograph No. 6
Photographer - Harlan D. Unrau
Date - September 1988
Original Negative - Denver Service Center, Western Team
View - Ditch in Strawberry Creek Canyon; looking west-
northwest
Photograph No. 7
Photographer - Harlan D. Unrau
Date - September 1988
Original Negative - Denver Service Center, Western Team
View - Stella Lake Rock Dam; looking south
Photograph No. 8
Photographer - Harlan D. Unrau
Date - September 1988
Original Negative - Denver Service Center, Western Team
View - Stella Lake Rock Dam; looking south
Photograph No. 9
Photographer - Harlan D. Unrau
Date - September 1988
Original Negative - Denver Service Center, Western Team
View - Stella Lake Rock Dam; looking south
650
APPENDIX FF
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651
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ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
MANUSCRIPT SOURCES
Baker, Nevada. Great Basin National Park.
Central Files.
Chief Ranger's Files.
Resource Management Files.
Superintendent's Files.
Vertical Files.
. Private Collection of Denys M. Baker.
"George W. Baker Reminiscences." Unpublished ms., ca. 1904 (Excerpts of ms.
provided to author by Denys M. Baker).
Beltsville, Maryland. U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library.
Forest Service Photograph Collection.
Berkeley, California. University of California, Bancroft Library, Manuscripts Division.
"Annual Narrative Report, 1935, by C.R. Townsend, County Extension Agent, For
the Period of November 1, 1934, to October 31, 1935, Ely, Nevada."
[Biographical Sketch of] Robert Briggs, ca. 1887.
"Data Regarding Progress and Growth of Nevada," ca. 1888.
Everts, Philetus. "Nevada History," n.d.
Lee, William. "A Copy of My Notes Taken While On A Journey Across the Plains
from Washington to Genoa, Carson Valley, Utah, From April 11th May 9 (Monday)
1858 to Oct. 25th 1859."
Peet Family Papers, 1859-1878.
Scott, Joseph. Dictation, 1885.
University of Nevada, Agricultural Extension Division, White Pine County, Nevada.
"Annual Report for the Period From November 1, 1934 to October 31, 1935," Helen
M. Gillette, District Extension Agent.
Carson City, Nevada. State Library and Archives, Division of Archives and Records.
Assessment Books, White Pine County, 1891-1892.
Denver, Colorado. Denver Public Library.
Western History Collection.
655
Elko, Nevada. U.S. Forest Service, Humboldt National Forest, Headquarters.
Historical Files.
Ely, Nevada. U.S. Forest Service, Humboldt National Forest, Ely District Ranger Station.
Historical Files.
. White Pine County Courthouse.
Assessment Books.
County Newspaper Collection.
Land Records.
. White Pine County Library.
County Newspaper Collection Index.
Vertical Files.
_. White Pine Public Museum, Inc.
County Newspaper Collection.
Photograph Collection.
Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. National Park Service, Harpers Ferry Center, National Park
Service Archives.
National Park Service History Collection.
Lakewood, Colorado. National Park Service, Denver Service Center.
Great Basin National Park General Management Planning Team Files.
Technical Information Center Files.
. National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Regional Office, Land Resource Division.
Land Acquisition Maps, Nevada National Forest and Great Basin National Park.
Las Vegas, Nevada. University of Nevada, James R. Dickinson Library, Special Collections
Department.
Cannon, Howard W., Papers.
Logan, Utah. Utah State University, Merrill Library, Department of Special Collections and
Archives.
Hayden, Carl E., Collection.
Ridgeway Family Papers, Collection Ms. 8, Caine Archive of Intermountain Americana.
656
Ogden, Utah. U.S. Forest Service, Intermountain Regional Office.
Historic Photograph Collection.
Historical Files.
Provo, Utah. Brigham Young University, Harold B. Lee Library, Special Collections -
Manuscripts.
George Washington Bean Journals.
Reno, Nevada. Nevada Historical Society.
Baring, Walter S., Papers.
Boak, Cada C, Collection.
Nevada Outdoor Recreation Association Collection.
Rhodes, Beatrice I. "The Unrivalled Beauties of Lehman's Cave." August 30, 1921.
"Shoshone Mining District, Filed Aug. 5th, 1882."
U.S. Census. Nevada. 1860, 1870, 1880.
Vertical Files.
Great Basin National Park.
Lehman Caves National Monument.
Wilderness Areas.
. University of Nevada, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology.
Nevada Mining District Collection.
Lincoln Mining District.
Minerva Mining District.
Osceola Mining District.
Snake Mining District.
Tungsten Mining District.
. University of Nevada, University Library.
Basque Collection.
Mines Library.
Oral History Project.
Bible, Alan. "Recollections of a Nevada Native Son: The Law, Politics, the
Nevada Attorney General's Office, and the United States Senate." 1982.
Blair, Minnie P. "Days Remembered of Folson, and Placerville, California;
Banking and Farming in Goldfield, Tonopah, and Fallon, Nevada." 1968.
657
Gemmill, Paul. "Recollections of Mining Ventures, Life In Eastern Nevada and
the Nevada Mining Association." 1978.
Miles, Evelyn Madsen. "A Teacher's Perspective of Austin, Nevada: 1932-
1936." 1983.
Sack, Ivan. "Forester Lost in the Woods, Sailor Lost on Rocks and Shoals:
My Careers with the Forest Service and the U.S. Navy." 1978.
White, W. Wallace. "Caring for the Environment: My Work with Public Health
and Reclamation in Nevada." 1980.
Special Collections Department.
Bible, Alan, Papers.
Boak, C.C. "Lehman Caves: The Wonder Under World." October 17, 1922.
Gallagher, Charles D. "Memoir and Autobiography." Typescript, 1965.
Hilp, Lester J. "Reminiscences of a White Pine County Native, Reno Pharmacy
Owner, and Civic Leader." Typescript, 1968.
Venstrom, Cruz, and Mason, Howard, comps. "Agricultural History of Nevada."
Typescript, Reno, 1944.
Works Progress Administration. Works Progress Recreation Division, Reno.
"Nevada: A Pageant of Progress." 1938.
Rockville, Maryland. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Archives.
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Carlile P. Patterson, Superintendent, Section XVI,
State: Nevada, 34098, Observations of Horizontal Directions, Locality - Jeff Davis
Pk. Station, White Pine County . . . 1882, Chief of Party - William Eimbeck. 5 vols.
Sacramento, California. California State Library.
California Section.
Salt Lake City, Utah. Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Day Saints, Historical Department,
Library - Archives.
"Biographical Sketch of Edson Barney."
Journal History of the Church.
Manuscript History of the Church.
. State of Utah, Department of Administrative Services, Division of Archives and
Records Service.
Secretary of Utah Territory, Executive Record Books, Series 242, Reels 1-2, 1850-
1871.
Secretary of Utah Territory, Territorial Executive Papers, Series 241, Reels 1-4, 1849-
658
1872.
San Bruno, California. National Archives and Records Administration, San Francisco Branch.
Record Group 49, Records of the Bureau of Land Management.
Record Group 79, Records of the National Park Service.
Record Group 95, Records of the U.S. Forest Service.
San Marino, California. Huntington Library, Manuscript Department.
Mitchell Papers, 1858-1887.
Washington, D.C. National Archives and Records Administration.
Record Group 48, Records of the Office of the Secretary of the Interior.
Record Group 49, Records of the Bureau of Land Management.
Record Group 79, Records of the National Park Service.
. National Park Service, Washington Office, History Division.
Historical Files.
Park Files
. National Park Service, Washington Office, Legislation Division.
Legislation Files.
There is a wealth of manuscript material available concerning the topics addressed in this
study. The materials in Great Basin National Park are particularly helpful for study of the
early settlement of Snake Valley, the development of Lehman Caves and Lehman Caves
National Monument, and the movement to establish the park. The "George W. Baker
Reminiscences" contribute valuable insights into the development of the Baker Ranch and
other early ranging operations in Snake Valley. The Assessment Books for White Pine
County at the Nevada State Archives provide data on the development and settlement of
Snake and Spring valleys during the early 1890s. The files at the headquarters of Humboldt
National Forest in Elko are helpful in understanding the historical development of Nevada
and Humboldt national forests, while the files at the Ely District Ranger Station provide a
wealth of information on the organizational and operational evolution of the Baker and Ely
ranger districts and Snake divisions of the two national forests. The White Pine County
Courthouse contains the most comprehensive county newspaper collection, an index (only
up through 1907) for which is located in the White Pine County Library. A variety of Park
Service reports, drawings, and maps relating to Lehman Caves National Monument and
Great Basin National Park are found in the Denver Service Center's Technical Information
Center. Included in the Great Basin National Park General Management Planning Team files
are old Forest Service records and documentation collected by that bureau's researchers
concerning the history of the present-day park area. The papers of leading Nevada
politicians, such as the Howard W. Cannon Papers at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas,
the Walter S. Baring Papers at the Nevada Historical Society, and the Alan Bible Papers
at the University of Nevada, Reno, contribute to an understanding of the political
ramifications of the movement to establish Great Basin National Park. Photographs of the
659
park area dating back to the 1920s may be found at the National Agricultural Library in
Beltsville, Maryland, and the U.S. Forest Service's Intermountain Regional Office in Ogden,
Utah. Documents concerning early Mormon penetration of the park area may be found at
Brigham Young University, the Historical Department of the Church of Jesus Christ of the
Latter-Day Saints, and the Utah Historical Society. The Nevada Historical Society contains
the Cada C. Boak Collection, which provides data on the designation and early development
of Lehman Caves National Monument, and the Nevada Outdoor Recreation Association,
which contains considerable information on the movement to establish the national park.
The Nevada Mining District Collection at the Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology has
numerous historic files on each of the mining districts in the Snake Range, while the
California Section in the California State Library has useful early newspapers chronicling
the settlement and mining development in the park area. The most extensive documentary
materials relating to the historical development of Lehman Caves National Monument and
Nevada and Humboldt national forests are found at the National Archives in Washington,
D.C., and San Bruno, California.
NEWSPAPERS
Daily Alta California. February 12, March 27, April 21, 28, May 9, 1869.
Desert News. August 9, 1986.
Elko Independent. January 12, 1985.
Ely Daily Times. 1922, 1924, 1931, 1936, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1966, 1967,
1968, 1986.
Ely Mining Expositor. January 5, 1907.
Ely Mining Record. June 8, 1907.
Ely Record. July 20, 1920; April 13, 1923; April 24, May 2, June 13, July 4, 1924; March
2, 1928; July 30, 1933; March 10, 1950.
Ely Weekly Mining Expositor. November 14, 1907.
Genoa Weekly Courier. September 4, 1885.
Intermountain Pay Dirt. November 1 983.
Las Vegas Review Journal. April 1 6, October 29, 1 986.
Los Angeles Times. August 5, 1986.
Milford News. August 11,1 949.
Mining Record Newspaper. June 4, 1 986.
Nevada Appeal. January 29, 1967.
Nevada State Journal. February 15, May 10, 1959.
Reno Evening Gazette. April 29, 1959; June 14, 1986.
660
Reno Gazette and Journal. January 24, 1 982.
Sacramento Daily Union. July 1, 24, 29, 1868.
Salt Lake Tribune. February 8, 1931; April 7, 1957; July 14, 1967.
Ward Weekly Reflex. June 10, 21, 1877; August 20, 1881; September 20, 1882; March 28,
1883.
White Pine News. 1869, 1870, 1874, 1883, 1885, 1886, 1888, 1889, 1890, 1891, 1893,
1894, 1896, 1897, 1899, 1900, 1901, 1902, 1904, 1905, 1906, 1907.
The most comprehensive collection of White Pine County newspapers is housed in the
basement of the White Pine County Courthouse. An index for county newspapers up
through 1907 is located in the White Pine County Library. The library and the White Pine
Public Museum also have some county newspapers. The Nevada State Library has the
most extensive statewide collection of Nevada newspapers.
MAPS
Cadwallader, Allen, comp. Map of the White Pine Mining District - Map of the White Pine
Range. San Francisco, H.H. Bancroft & Company, 1869. (Map on file in Manuscripts
Division, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.)
Gibbes, Charles Drayton. Map of White Pine and Other Mining Districts in the Counties of
Lander and Nye. San Francisco, Warren Holt, 1869. (Map on file in Manuscripts
Division, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.)
Map of an Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains in the Year 1842 and to Oregon
and North California in the Years 1843-44 by Brevet Capt. J.C. Fremont of the Corps
of Topographical Engineers Under the Orders of Col. J.J. Abert, Chief of the
Topographical Bureau. (Map on file in Manuscripts Division, Bancroft Library,
University of California, Berkeley.)
Map Showing Detailed Topography of the Country Traversed by the Reconnaissance
Expedition Through Southern & Southeastern Nevada in Charge of Lieut. Geo. M.
Wheeler, U.S. Engineers, Assisted by Lieut. O.W. Lockwood, Corps of Engineers
USA, 1869. P.W. Hamel, Chief Topographer and Draughtsman. (Map on file in Special
Collections Division, Marriott Library, University of Utah, Salt Lake City).
Tagliabue & Barker. Map of White Pine Mining District, White Pine County, Nevada.
Treasure City, Nev. San Francisco, G.T. Brown & Co., 1869. (Map on file in
Manuscripts Division, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.)
The Fremont map is significant as being associated with the explorer's designation of the
Wasatch-Sierra Nevada region as the Great Basin, and the Wheeler map shows early
settlements, roads, and ranches in Snake and Spring valleys. The other maps provide
valuable geographical data concerning the White Pine mining rush.
LEGISLATIVE DOCUMENTS
Nevada National Forest, Nevada, By the President of the United States of America, A
Proclamation, February 10, 1909 (Proclamation No. 839-35 Stat. 2220).
661
Nevada National Forest (Second Proclamation), By the President of the United States of
America, A Proclamation, October 28, 1912 (Proclamation No. 1221-37 Stat. 1766).
Public Law 99-565 (100 Stat. 3181), October 27, 1986. (Establishing act for Great Basin
National Park).
Forest Reserve Act (26 Stat. 1095), March 3, 1891.
PUBLISHED WORKS
Books
Abbe, Donald R. Austin and the Reese River Mining District: Nevada's Forgotten Frontier.
Reno, University of Nevada Press, 1985.
Albright, Horace M., and Taylor, Frank J. "Oh, Ranger!": A Book About the National Parks.
Reprint ed. Golden, Colorado, Outbooks, 1980.
American Annual Cyclopedia and Register of Important Events of the Year 1871. New York,
1872.
Angel, Myron, ed. History of Nevada, With Illustrations and Biographical Sketches of its
Prominent Men and Pioneers. Oakland, California, Thompson & West, 1881 [Reprint
ed., New York, Arno Press, 1973.]
Armstrong, Robert D. comp. A Preliminary Union Catalog of Nevada Manuscripts. Reno,
University of Nevada Library, 1967.
Arrington, Leonard J. Great Basin Kingdom: An Economic History of the Latter Day Saints,
1830-1900. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1958.
Ashbaugh, Don. Nevada's Turbulent Yesterday. Los Angeles, Westemlore Press, 1963.
Bancroft, Hubert Howe. The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America, Vol. I,
Wild Tribes. New York, D. Appleton and Company, 1875.
The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, Volume XXV, History of Nevada, Colorado
and Wyoming, 1540-1888. San Francisco, The History Company, Publishers, 1890.
Barnes, Will C. Western Grazing Grounds and Forest Ranges. New York, Arno Press, 1 979.
Bartlett, Richard A. Great Surveys of the American West. Norman, University of Oklahoma
Press, 1962.
Beckwith, Frank. Millard and Nearby. Springville, Utah, Art City Publishing Company, 1947.
Billington, Ray Allen. Westward Expansion: A History of the American Frontier. New York,
The Macmillan Company, 1949.
Boak, Cada C. Lehman Caves: The Wonder Index World. Tonopah, n.p., 1922.
Bolton, Herbert E. trans, and ed. Pageant in the Wilderness: The Story of the Escalante
Expedition to the Interior Basin, 1776. Salt Lake City, Utah Historical Society, 1950.
662
. The Early Explorations of Father Garces on the Pacific Slope. New York,
Macmillan, 1917.
Bowles, Samuel. Across the Continent: A Summer's Journey to the Rocky Mountains, The
Mormons, and the Pacific States, With Speaker Colfax. Springfield, Massachusetts,
Samuel Bowles & Company, 1866.
Brodie, Fawn M. ed. The City of the Saints and Across the Rocky Mountains to California
by Richard F. Burton. New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1963.
Browne, J. Ross. Resources of the Pacific Slope. New York, D. Appleton and Company,
1869.
Cadwallader, Allen, comp. Map and Guide to the White Pine Mines and the Region of
Country Adjacent, In Eastern Nevada .... Compiled by Gen. Allen Cadwallader
With An Elaborate Map. San Francisco, H.H. Bancroft and Company, April 1869.
Carlson, Helen S. Nevada Place Names. Reno, University of Nevada Press, 1974.
Chavez, Fray Angelico, trans., and Warner, Ted J., ed. The Dominguez-Escalante Journal.
Provo, Brigham Young University Press, 1977.
Cline, Gloria Griffin. Exploring the Great Basin. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press,
1963.
Peter Skene Ogden and the Hudson's Bay Company. Norman, University of
Oklahoma Press, 1974.
Cowes, Elliott, ed. On the Trail of a Spanish Pioneer: The Diary and Itinerary of Francisco
Garces. 2 vols. New York, F.P. Harper, 1900.
Creel, Cecil W. A History of Nevada Agriculture. Reno, University of Nevada, 1964.
Creer, Leland Hargrave. The Founding of an Empire: The Exploration and Colonization of
Utah, 1776-1856. Salt Lake City, Bookcraft, 1947.
Dale, Harrison Clifford. The Ashley-Smith Explorations and the Discovery of a Central Route
to the Pacific, 1822-1829. Cleveland, The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1918.
Dana, Samuel Trask, and Fairfax, Sally K. Forest and Range Policy: Its Development in
the United States. 2d ed. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1980.
Davis, Sam P. ed. The History of Nevada. 2 vols. Reno, The Elmo Publishing Co., 1913.
Day, Stella H., and Ekins, Sebrina. comps. Milestones of Millard: A Century of History of
Millard County, 1851-1951. Springville, Utah, Art City Publishing Company, 1951.
Days of the Old West. Deseret, Utah, 1961.
D'Azevedo, Warren L. ed. Great Basin, Volume II, Handbook of North American Indians.
Washington, Smithsonian Institution, 1986.
Dictionary of American History. Rev. ed. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1976. Vol. II.
663
Douglass, William A., and Bilbao, Jon. Amerikanuak: Basques in the New World. Reno,
University of Nevada Press, 1975
Duffus, R.L. The Santa Fe Trail. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico, 1930.
Eardley, A.J. Structural Geology of North America. 2d ed. 1962.
Egan, Ferol. Sand in a Whirlwind. New York, Doubleday & Co., 1972.
Egan, William M. comp. Pioneering the West, 1846 to 1879: Major Howard Egan's Diary.
Richmond, Utah, Howard R. Egan Estate, 1917.
Elliott, Russell R. History of Nevada. Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 1973.
. Nevada's Twentieth-Century Mining Boom: Tonopah-Goldfield-Ely. Carson City,
University of Nevada Press, 1965.
., and Poulton, Helen. Writings on Nevada: A Selected Bibliography. Nevada Studies
in History and Political Science, No. 5. Carson City, University of Nevada Press,
1963.
Estergreen, M. Morgan. Kit Carson: A Portrait in Courage. Norman, University of Oklahoma
Press, 1962.
Evans, Albert S. White Pine: Its Geographical Location, Topography, Geological Formation;
Mining Laws; Mineral Resources; Towns; Surroundings; Climate, Population, Altitude
and General Characteristics; Condition of Society; How to Reach There .... San
Francisco, Alta California Printing House, 1869.
Fairbanks, Merwin G. ed. Selected Personality Profiles. 2 vols. Provo, Brigham Young
University, 1976.
Fath, E.A. The Elements of Astronomy. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955.
Fenneman, Nevin M. Physiography of Western United States. New York and London,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1931.
Fletcher, Fred N. Early Nevada: The Period of Exploration, 1776-1848. Reno, A. Carlisle
& Co., 1929.
Folkes, John G. Nevada Newspapers, A Bibliography: A Compilation of Nevada History,
1854-1864. Nevada Studies in History and Political Science, No. 6. Carson City,
University of Nevada Press, 1964.
Forbes, Jack D. Nevada Indians Speak. Reno, University of Nevada Press, 1967.
Fowler, Don, and Koch, David. "The Great Basin," in Gordon L. Bender, ed. Reference
Handbook on the Deserts of North America. Westport, Connecticut, Greenwood Press,
1982. Pp. 7-63.
Fremont, John Charles. Memoirs of My Life. Chicago and New York, Belford, Clarke &
Company, 1887.
Galvin, John. ed. A Record of Travels in Arizona and California, 1775-1776. San Francisco,
John Howell Books, 1965.
664
Geographical Memoir Upon Upper California In Illustration of His Map of Oregon and
California by John C. Fremont. Washington, 1848.
Georgetta, Clel. Golden Fleece in Nevada. Reno, Venture Publishing Company, 1972.
Glass, Mary Ellen. Silver and Politics in Nevada: 1892-1902. Reno, University of Nevada
Press, 1969.
Goetzmann, William H. Army Exploration in the American West: 1803-1863. New Haven,
Yale University Press, 1959.
Greever, William S. The Bonanza West: The Story of the Western Mining Rushes, 1848-
1900. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.
Griggs, Jeannette S. Let There Be Light: ML Wheeler Power REA Cooperative 999. Forest
Grove, Oregon, Times Litho Print, 1974.
Hafen, LeRoy R. ed. The Mountain Men and the Fur Trade of the Far West. 9 vols.
Glendale, California, The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1966.
. ed. Trappers of the Far West: Sixteen Biographical Sketches. Lincoln and
London, University of Nebraska Press, 1983.
, and Hafen, Ann W. The Old Spanish Trail. Glendale, California, Arthur H. Clark,
1954.
Halladay, Orlynn J., and Peacock, Var Lynn. The Lehman Caves Story. Baker, Nevada,
Lehman Caves Natural History Association, 1972.
Harris, Robert P. Nevada Postal History: 1861 to 1972. Las Vegas, Nevada Publications,
1973.
Hays, Samuel P. Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation
Movement, 1890-1920. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1959.
Heizer, Robert F., and Baumhoff, Martin A. Prehistoric Rock Art of Nevada and Eastern
California. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1962.
Hibbard, Benjamin H. A History of Public Land Policies. New York, The Macmillan
Company, 1924.
Higgins, L. James. A Guide to the Manuscript Collections at the Nevada Historical Society.
[Carson City], Nevada Historical Society, 1975.
Home, Flora Diana Bean. Autobiography of George Washington Bean: A Utah Pioneer of
1847 and His Family Records. Salt Lake City, Utah Printing Company, 1945.
Hulse, James W. Lincoln County, Nevada, 1864-1909: History of a Mining Region. Nevada
Studies in History and Political Science, No. 9. Reno, University of Nevada Press,
1971.
Hunt, Samuel F. Mining Resources and History of White Pine Mining District, Nevada. [Ely,
Nevada, Ely Mining Record Print, 1910.]
665
Jackson, W. Turrentine. Treasure Hill: Portrait of a Silver Mining Camp. Tucson, University
of Arizona Press, 1963.
ed. Twenty Years On the Pacific Slope: Letters of Henry Eno from California and
Nevada, 1848-1871. New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1965.
J. Ross Browne's Illustrated Mining Adventures: California & Nevada, 1863-1865. Reprint
ed. Balboa Island, California, Paisano Press, 1961.
Kelsey, Michael R. Hiking and Climbing in the Great Basin National Park. Provo, Kelsey
Publishing, 1988.
Laxalt, Robert. Nevada: A Bicentennial History. New York, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.,
1977.
Leigh, Rufus Wood. Nevada Place Names: Their Origin and Significance. Salt Lake City,
Desert News Press, 1964.
Lewis, Oscar. The Town That Died Laughing: The Story of Austin, Nevada; Rambunctious
Early-Day Mining Camp, and Of Its Renowned Newspaper, The Reese River Reveille.
Reno, University of Nevada Press, 1986.
Lillard, Richard G. Desert Challenge: An Interpretation of Nevada. New York, Alfred A.
Knopf, 1949.
Lincoln, Francis Church. Mining Districts and Mineral Resources of Nevada. Reno, Nevada
Newsletter Publishing Company, 1923.
Lingenfelter, Richard E. The Newspapers of Nevada, 1858-1958: A History and Bibliography.
San Francisco, John Howell-Books, 1964.
McMurtrie, Douglas C. comp. Nevada Mining Laws: The Text of the Local Laws and
Regulations Enacted By Four Local Mining Districts in Nevada, 1863. Chicago, The
Black Cat Press, 1935.
Mack, Effie Mona. Nevada: A History of the State from the Earliest Times Through the
Civil War. Glendale, California, The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1936.
., Anderson, Idel, and Singleton, Beulah E. Nevada Government. Caldwell, Idaho,
The Caxton Printers, 1953.
Malone, Dumas, ed. Dictionary of American Biography. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons,
1934. Vol. VII.
Map of the White Pine Silver District, Nevada, With the Surrounding Country, By Chas.
Drayton Gibbes, With A Description From the "Alta California, " By Albert S. Evans.
San Francisco, Warren Holt, 1869.
Mellanbruch, Laura Lehman. The Genealogy of the Lehman Family. Willcox, Arizona, Ruth
Mellanbruch, 1943.
Miller, B.F. "Nevada In the Making," in Nevada State Historical Society Papers, 1923-1924.
Molinelli, Lambert. Eureka and Its Resources: A Complete History of Eureka County,
Nevada. Reno, University of Nevada Press, 1982.
666
Moorhead, Max L. ed. Commerce of the Prairies by Joseph Gregg. Norman, University of
Oklahoma Press, 1954.
Mordy, Brooke D., and McCaughey, Donald L. Nevada Historical Sites. Reno, Desert
Research Institute, 1968.
Morgan, Dale L. Jedediah Smith and the Opening of the West. Lincoln, University of
Nebraska Press, 1953.
. The Humboldt: Highroad of the West. New York, Farrar and Rinehart, 1943.
Morris, Richard B. ed. Encyclopedia of American History: Bicentennial Edition. New York,
Harper & Row, Publishers, 1976.
Muir, John. "Nevada's Timber Belt," October 1878, and "Glacial Phenomena in Nevada,"
November 1878, in Steep Trials: California-Utah-Nevada-Washington-Oregon-The
Grand Canon, ed. by William F. Bade. Boston and New York, Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1918.
Murbarger, Nell. Ghosts of the Glory Trail. Palm Desert, California, Desert Magazine Press,
1956.
Myrick, David F. Railroads of Nevada and Eastern California. 2 vols. Berkeley, Howell-
North Books, 1962.
Nevins, Allan. Fremont: Pathmarker of the West. New York, London, and Toronto,
Longmans, Green and Co., 1955.
ed. Narratives of Exploration and Adventure by John Charles Fremont. New York,
London, and Toronto, Longmans, Green & Co., 1956.
Norcross, C.A. Agricultural Nevada. San Francisco, Sunset Magazine Homeseekers Bureau,
1911.
Oregon and California: The Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, Oregon and
California by Brevet Col. J.C. Fremont. Buffalo, George H. Derby and Co., 1851.
Paher, Stanley W. Nevada: An Annotated Bibliography. Las Vegas, Nevada Publications,
1980.
. Nevada Ghost Towns & Mining Camps. Berkeley, Howell-North Books, 1970.
Patterson, Edna B., Ulph, Louise A., and Goodwin, Victor. Nevada's Northeast Frontier.
Sparks, Nevada, Western Printing & Publishing Co., 1969.
Paul, Rodman Wilson. Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848-1880. Albuquerque, University
of New Mexico Press, 1963.
Phillips, Fred M. Desert People and Mountain Men: Exploration of the Great Basin, 1824-
1865. Bishop, California, Chalfant Press, 1977.
Pinchot, Gifford. Breaking New Ground. New York, Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1947.
Poll, Richard D. ed. Utah's History. Provo, Brigham Young University Press, 1978.
667
Poulton, Helen J. Index to Thompson and West's History of Nevada. Bibliographical Series,
No. 6. Carson City, University of Nevada Press, 1966.
Powell, John J. Nevada: The Land of Silver. San Francisco, Bacon & Company, 1876.
Rannells, A. Karl. ed. Mines Register, Volume XXIX, 1970-1971. New York, The American
Metal Market Co., 1972.
Read, Effie O. White Pine Lang Syne: A True History of White Pine County, Nevada.
Denver, Big Mountain Press, 1965.
Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains by John Charles Fremont.
Readex Microprint Corporation, 1966.
Robertson, Frank Chester, and Harris, Beth Kay. Boom Towns of the Great Basin. Denver,
Sage Books, 1962.
Robinson, Glen O. The Forest Service: A Study in Public Land Management. Baltimore,
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975.
Rogers, Garry F. Then and Now: A Photographic History of Vegetation Change in the
Central Great Basin Desert. Salt Lake City, University of Utah Press, 1982.
Rowley, William D. U.S. Forest Service Grazing and Rangelands: A History. College
Station, Texas A&M University Press, 1985.
Runte, Alfred. National Parks: The American Experience. Lincoln, University of Nebraska
Press, 1979.
Sabin, Edwin L Kit Carson Days: 1809-1868. Chicago, A.C. McClurg and Company, 1914.
Sawyer, Byrd Wall. Nevada Nomads: A Story of the Sheep Industry. San Jose, Harlan-
Young Press, 1971.
Scrugham, James G. ed. Nevada: A Narrative of the Conquest of a Frontier Land. 3 vols.
Chicago and New York, The American Historical Society, Inc., 1935.
Smith, Delbert H. comp. White Pine County From the Beginning. Ely, Nevada, White Pine
Chamber of Commerce and Mines, 1961.
Steen, Harold K. The U.S. Forest Service: A History. Seattle, University of Washington
Press, 1976.
Stocking, Hobart E. The Road to Santa Fe. New York, Hastings House, 1971.
Stott, Clifford L. Search for Sanctuary: Brigham Young and the White Mountain Expedition.
Salt Lake City, University of Utah Press, 1984.
The Silver Mines of Nevada. New York, William C. Bryant & Co., 1864.
The Shortest Route to California Illustrated by a History of Explorations of the Great Basin
of Utah with its Topographical and Geological Character and Some Account of the
Indian Tribes by Brevet Brig.-General J.H. Simpson. Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott &
Co., 1869.
668
Todd, Edgeley W. ed. The Adventures of Captain Bonneville, U.S.A., in the Rocky
Mountains and the Far West, Digested from His Journal by Washington Irving.
Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1961.
Truett, Velma A. On the Hoof in Nevada. Los Angeles, Gehrett-Truett-Hall, 1 950.
Twain, Mark. Roughing It. Reprint ed. Cutchogue, New York, Buccaneer books, 1986.
Van Hise, Charles R., and Havenmeyer, Loomis. eds. Conservation of Our Natural
Resources. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1933.
Wagner, W.F. ed. The Narrative of Zenas Leonard. New York, Burrows Brothers Company,
1904.
Warner, C.C. comp. Products, Resources, Opportunities for Capital and Advantages to
Emigrants of Nevada. Reno, Gazette Book and Job Print, 1889.
Watson, Douglas Sloane. West Wind: The Life Story of Joseph Reddeford Walker, Knight
of the Golden Horseshoe. Los Angeles, 1 934.
Weed, Walter Harvey. International Edition: The Mines Handbook. New York City, W.H.
Weed, 1920.
. International Edition: The Mines Handbook. Tuckahoe, New York, The Mines
Handbook Company, 1922.
Wentworth, Edward Norris. America's Sheep Trails. Ames, Iowa State College Press, 1948.
Wheat, Carl I. Mapping the Trans-Mississippi West: 1540-1861. 6 vols. San Francisco,
Institute of Historical Cartography, 1957-63.
Wishart, David. The Fur Trade of the American West, 1807-1840: A Geographical
Synthesis. Lincoln and London, University of Nebraska Press, 1979.
Wittwer, E.E. Nevada Agriculture: Bulletin 210. Reno, University of Nevada, Max C.
Fleischmann College of Agriculture, May 1960.
Wren, Thomas, ed. A History of the State of Nevada, Its Resources and People. New York,
Lewis Publishing Co., 1904.
Young, James A. Cattle In the Cold Desert. Logan, Utah State University Press, 1985.
A variety of books contributed invaluable insights for this study. Useful works for an
understanding of the history of Nevada included those by Angel, Bancroft, Carlson, Davis,
Elliott, Harris, Laxalt, Lingenfelter, Mack, Miller, Mordy and McCaughey, Morgan, Paher,
Patterson, Ulph, and Goodwin, Scrugham, Wren, and Young. The books by Arrington,
Home, Poll, and Stott were helpful in terms of Mormon history. Forest Service histories
included the works by Barnes, Dana, Pinchot, Robinson, Rowley, and Steen. The books by
Bartlett, Goetzmann, Muir, and Simpson provided an understanding of scientific and military
surveys of the Great Basin. The subject of early exploration in the Great Basin was
illuminated in the works by Bolton, Chavez, Cline, Cowes, Creer, Fletcher, Galvin, Todd,
Wagner, and Wheat. Data on the activities of fur trappers and mountain men was found in
the books by Dale, Estergreen, Hafen, Phillips, Sabin, Watson, and Wishart, while Fremont's
explorations are detailed in his own works as well as those by Nevins. The works by
669
Browne, Cadwallader, Evans, Glass, Greever, Hunt, Jackson, Lincoln, Paul, and Powell
were especially helpful on the topic of mining, while those by Creel, Douglass and Bilbao,
Fairbanks, Georgetta, Norcross, Sawyer, Truett, Warner, Wentworth, and Wittwer were
useful for the study of agriculture. Local and White Pine County history topics were aided
by reference to the books by Day and Ekins, Read, and Smith. The publications by Boak
and Mellanbruch provided insight into the development of Lehman Caves National
Monument and the life of Absalom S. Lehman. The works by D'Azevedo, Forbes, and
Heizer provided data on the topic of Great Basin and Nevada Native Americans.
Periodicals
Allen, James B., and Warner, Ted J. "The Gosuite Indians in Pioneer Utah." Utah Historical
Quarterly, XXXIX (Spring 1971), 162-177.
Auerbach, Herbert E. "Father Escalante's Route." Utah Historical Quarterly, IX (July, October
1941), 109-28, and XI (January, April, July, October 1943), 1-132.
Armstrong, Robert D. "Sources for Nevada History: A Survey of Institutional Collections
Outside the State." Nevada Historical Society Quarterly, XIV (Fall 1971), 33-38.
Bettinger, Robert L., and Baumhoff, Martin A. "The Numic Spread: Great Basin Cultures
in Competition." American Antiquity, XLVII (July 1982), 485-503.
Bird, John W. "A History of Water Rights in Nevada." Nevada Historical Society Quarterly,
XVIII (Spring 1975), 27-32.
.. "A History of Water Rights in Nevada." Nevada Historical Society Quarterly, XIX
(Spring 1976), 27-32.
Boak, Cada C. "Dedication of Lehman Caves National Monument: Ascent and Perilous
Descent of Mount Wheeler, August 1922." Nevada Historical Society Quarterly, XVI
(Summer 1973), 101-111.
Carithers, Joseph F. "Exploring the Baker Lake Trail." National Parks Magazine, XXXII
(April-June 1958), 71-73.
"Western Park Notes." National Parks Magazine, XXXII (January-March 1958), 17-
18.
Colley, Charles C. "The Struggle of Nevada Indians to Hold Their Lands, 1847-1870." Indian
Historian, VI (Summer 1973), 5-17.
"Conservation News Briefs." National Parks Magazine, XXXIII (December 1959), 13.
Currey, Donald R. "An Ancient Bristlecone Pine Stand in Eastern Nevada." Ecology, XLVI
(Summer 1965), 564-66.
Dees, Harry C. ed. "The Journal of George W. Bean." Nevada Historical Society Quarterly,
XV (Fall 1972), 2-29.
Elliott, Russell R. "The Early History of White Pine County, Nevada, 1865-1887." Pacific
Northwest Quarterly, XXX (April 1938), 145-68.
Engineering and Mining Journal, 1870-80, 1891, 1893-98, 1900, 1920, 1922-33, 1935.
670
Evans, Albert S. "Up in the Po-go-nip." Overland Monthly, II (March 1869), 273-74.
Fletcher, F.N. "Eastbound Route of Jedediah S. Smith, 1827." California Historical Quarterly,
III (January 1924), 344-49.
Forbes, Jack D. "White-Indian Relations In Nevada Since the 1870s: A Century of
Disappointment." Pacific Historian, X (Spring 1966), 15-21.
Fowler, Catherine S. and Don D. "Notes on the History of the Southern Paiutes and
Western Shoshonis." Utah Historical Quarterly, XXXIX (Spring 1971), 95-113.
Georgetta, Gel. "Sheep In Nevada." Nevada Historical Society Quarterly, VIII (Summer
1965), 14-38.
Hafen, LeRoy R. "Mountain Men Before the Mormons." Utah Historical Society, XXVI
(October 1958), 307-326.
Harrington, Edna Parker. "More Kachina Pictographs in Nevada." Masterkey, VII (March
1933), 48-50.
Harrington, Johns. "Adventure in a Nevada Cave." Desert Magazine, VI (May 1943), 18-19.
Harrington, M.R. "American Horses and Ancient Men in Nevada." Masterkey, VIII (November
1934), 165-69.
. "More Cave-Hunting." Masterkey, VI (September 1932), 120-21.
. "Relics of an Abandoned Colony." Masterkey, VI (September 1932), 115-16.
. "Report of the Curator." Masterkey, IX (March 1935), 58.
Heald, Weldon F. "National Park Proposed for Nevada." National Parks Magazine, XXXI
(July-September 1957), 99-102.
. "Nevada's Wheeler Peak and Great Basin Range - A Possible National Park."
Nature Magazine, LI (June-July 1958), 314-17, 330.
. "The Proposed Great Basin Range National Park." Sierra Club Bulletin, XLI
(December 1956), 46, 51-52.
. "Wheeler Peak and Its Glacier." Nevada Highways and Parks, XVIII (1958), 3-6.
Hill, Joseph J. "Ewing Young in the Fur Trade of the Far Southwest, 1822-1834." Oregon
Historical Quarterly, XXIV (March 1923), 1-35.
Hodge, F.W. "Report of the Director." Masterkey, XI (March 1937), 42-52.
King, Volney. "Millard County, 1851-1875: Part 3." Utah Humanities Review, I (July 1947),
261-78.
Jackson, Donald Dale. "The Great Basin Is a Lonely Place for a National Park."
Smithsonian, XVIII (November 1987), 69-81.
671
Lambert, Darwin. "Great Basin - Pro and Con." National Parks Magazine, XXXIV (February
1959), 13.
. "Great Basin 'Sky Island.'" National Parks Magazine, XXXIII (August 1959), 2.
. "Over the Years With Great Basin Park." National Parks Magazine, XL (June
1966), 12-16.
_. "Wheeler Peak Scenic Area." National Parks Magazine, XXXIII (April 1959), 13.
Lange, Arthur L. "Stream Piracy and Cave Development Along Baker Creek, Nevada."
Western Speleological Institute, Bulletin Number 1 (July 1958), 3-19.
Lee, Donald E., and Bastron, Harry. "Allanite from the Mount Wheeler Area, White Pine
County, Nevada." American Mineralogist, XLVII (November-December 1963), 1327-31.
, and Erd, Richard C. "Phenakite from the Mount Wheeler Area, Snake Range,
White Pine County, Nevada." American Mineralogist, XLVIII (January-February 1963),
189-93.
"Lehman Caves National Monument." American Forestry, XXVIII (March 1922), 190.
Merriam, C. Hart. "Earliest Crossing of the Deserts of Utah and Nevada to Southern
California: Route of Jedediah S. Smith in 1826." California Historical Quarterly, II
(October 1923), 228-36.
Mining and Scientific Press, 1869-90, 1899, 1901-19, 1921.
"Nevada." Annual Mining Review and Stock Ledger, July 1876, 20.
"Nevada Has Diverse Park System." Nevada Highways and Parks, I (March 1936), 1-4.
Nevins, Allan. "A Record Filled With Sunlight." American Heritage, VII (June 1956), 12-15,
18-19, 106-07.
Olsen, C.J. "The Proposed Invasion at Mt. Wheeler." American Forests, LXV (February
1959), 17-19, 40, 42.
Orr, Betty. "Baker's Dozens." Nevada, XXX (Fall 1970), 18, 20, 22, 24-25, 42.
Polenberg, Richard. "The Great Conservation Contest." Forest History, January 1967, 13-23.
"Results of Field Investigations for the Proposed Great Basin National Park, Nevada." Sierra
Club Reprint Series, No. 1, San Francisco, November 26, 1959.
Simpson, Ruth. "Mark Raymond Harrington: Father of Nevada Archeology." Nevada
Historical Society Quarterly, VIII (Fall-Winter 1965), 16-19.
Starkweather, Virginia. "Prospecting for Social Security." Survey Midmonthly, LXXV (October
1939), 311.
. "Social Security in Nevada, IV: In White Pine County, Nevada." Proceedings of
the National Conference of Social Work, 1939, 483-84.
"The Conservation Docket." National Parks Magazine, XXXIX (April 1965), 21.
672
"The Wheeler Survey in Nevada." Harpers New Monthly Magazine, LV (June 1877), 65-76.
Vanderburg, William O. "Placer Mining In Nevada." University of Nevada Bulletin, XXX (May
15, 1936).
Wheeler, S.M. "A Pueblo II Site in the Great Basin Area of Nevada." Masterkey, X
(November 1956), 207-11.
. "An Archeological Expedition to Nevada." Masterkey, XI (November 1937), 194-97.
. "The Jean L'Empereur In Nevada." Masterkey, XIII (November 1939), 216-20.
Wogan, Maurya. "Subterranean Wonderland." Nevada Magazine, III (September 1947), 39-
40.
Young, James A., and Budy, Jerry D. "Historical Use of Nevada's Pinyon-Juniper
Woodlands." Journal of Forest History, July 1979, 113-21.
Various periodical articles were helpful in the preparation of this study. The articles by
Allen and Warner, Bettinger, Colley, Forbes, and Fowler provided insights on the subject
of Native Americans in Nevada and White Pine County. The articles by Armstrong and Bird
provided information on Nevada historical research and water rights, respectively, while
those by Elliott and King aided in the history of Snake Valley and White Pine County. The
articles by Auerbach, Fletcher, Merriam, and Nevins provided data on early exploration,
while those by Hafen and Hill offered information on the activities of mountain men and fur
trappers. The articles by Dees, Georgetta, and Young and Budy were helpful concerning
the topics of Mormons, agriculture, and forestry, respectively. Numerous articles in the
Engineering and Mining Journal and the Mining and Scientific Press, as well as the articles
by Evans, Lee and Bastron, Lee and Erd, and Vanderburg were extremely helpful in
understanding the mining history of the Snake Range region. The articles by Boak and
Wogan provided data on Lehman Caves, those by the Harringtons, Hodge, Simpson, and
Wheeler were helpful in understanding archeological research activities in the Baker Caves-
Lehman Caves area, and those by Carithers, Currey, Heald, Jackson, Lambert, and Olsen
contained data on the movement to establish Great Basin National Park.
Government Publications
Annual Report of the State Controller, 1911, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and
Assembly, State of Nevada, 1913, 26th Session, Vol I.
Annual Report of the State Controller, State of Nevada, 1916.
Annual Report of the State Inspector of Mines, 1910, in Appendix to Journals of Senate
and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1911, 25th Session, Vol. 2.
Annual Report of the State Inspector of Mines, 1912, in Appendix to Journals of Senate
and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1913, 26th Session, Vol. I.
Annual Report of the Surveyor General of the State of Nevada For the Year A.D. 1866.
Carson City, 1867.
Annual Reports of the Nevada Tax Commission, 1940, 1950.
673
Annual Reports of the Secretary of the Interior, 1895, 1902.
Annual Reports of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1879-90.
Biennial Reports of the Nevada Tax Commission, 1919-20; 1929-30.
Biennial Report of the State Engineer, 1909-1910, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and
Assembly, State of Nevada, 1911, 25th Session, Vol. 2.
Biennial Report of the State Fish Commission, 1911-1912, in Appendix to Journals of
Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1913, 26th Session, Vol. 3.
Biennial Report of the State Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1871 and
1872, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, Sixth
Session.
Biennial Report of the State Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1873 and
1874, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 7th Session.
Biennial Report of the State Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1875 and
1876, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 8th Session,
Vol. I.
Biennial Report of the State Mineralogist of the State of Nevada For the Years 1877 and
1878, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 9th Session.
Biennial Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register, 1899-1900, in Appendix
to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1901, 20th Session.
Biennial Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register, 1901-1902, in Appendix
to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1903, 21st Session.
Biennial Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register, 1905-1906, in Appendix
to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1907, 23d Session.
Biennial Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register, 1909-1910, in Appendix
to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1911, 25th Session.
Biennial Report of the Surveyor-General and State Land Register, 1913-1914, in Appendix
to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of Nevada, 1915, 27th Session, Vol. I.
Brackett, Albert G. "The Shoshones; or Snake Indians, Their Religion, Superstitions, and
Manners," in Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution,
Showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of the Institution For the Year
1879. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1880.
Census of the Inhabitants of the State of Nevada, 1875, in Appendix to Journals of Senate
and Assembly, State of Nevada, 8th Session, Vol. 2.
Congressional Record.
House. 85th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 104, Pt. 5, April 1, 1958.
Senate. 85th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 104, Pt. 5, April 1, 1958.
674
House. 86th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 105, Pt. 14, September 9, 1959.
Senate. 86th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 105, Pt. 14, September 9, 1959.
Senate. 87th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 107, Pt. 6, May 3, 1961.
House. 87th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 107, Pt. 6, May 8, 1961.
Senate. 87th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 108, Pt. 1, January 23, 25, 1962.
House. 87th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 108, Pt. 1, January 26, 1962.
House. 88th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 109, Pt. 9, June 26, 1963.
Senate. 89th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 111, Pt. 1, January 15, 1965.
House. 89th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 111, Pt. 4, March 11, 1965.
House. 89th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 111, Pt. 13, July 26, 1965.
House. 99th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 132, No. 56, April 30, 1986.
Senate. 99th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 132, No. 132, September 30, 1986.
Senate. 99th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 132, No. 133, October 1, 1986.
House. 99th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 132, No. 136, October 6, 1986.
Senate. 99th Cong., 2d Sess., Vol. 132, No. 139, October 9, 1986.
Extensions of Remarks. 99th Cong. 2d Sess., Vol. 132, No. 144, October 17, 1986.
Fifth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to the Secretary of the Interior,
1883-84. Washington. Government Printing Office, 1885.
Kearney, W.M. State Engineer, comp. How to Appropriate the Public Waters of the State
of Nevada, 1911. Carson City, 1911.
Nevada Bureau of Mines. Bulletin 57. Geology of the White Pine Mining District, White
Pine County, Nevada, by Fred L Humphrey. Reno, University of Nevada, 1960.
Nevada Bureau of Mines. Report 7. Outline of Nevada Mining History. Reno, Mackay
School of Mines, University of Nevada, 1964.
Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology. Bulletin 85. Geology and Mineral Resources of
White Pine County, Nevada. Reno, Mackay School of Mines, University of Nevada,
1976.
Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology. Special Publication MI-1986. The Nevada Mineral
Industry, 1986. Reno, Mackay School of Mines, University of Nevada, 1987.
Nevada State Bureau of Immigration, comp. Nevada and Her Resources: A Brief Sketch
of the Advantages and Possibilities of the State, and the Opportunities and
Inducements Offered to Capitalists and Homeseekers. Carson City, State Printing
Office, 1894.
675
Nevada State Bureau of Mines. Geology and Mining Series No. 38. Nevada's Metal and
Mineral Production (1859-1940, Inclusive), by Bertrand F. Couch and Jay A.
Carpenter, University of Nevada Bulletin, XXXVII (November 1, 1943).
Political History of Nevada. 4th ed. Carson City, 1960.
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The Paiutes of Utah, Northern Arizona, Southern Nevada, and Southeastern California;
The Western Shoshones of Idaho and Utah; and the Western Shoshones of Nevada;
and Report Concerning Claims of Settlers in the Mo-a-pa Valley, Southeastern
Nevada. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1874.
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the Rocky Mountains. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1870.
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Public Messages, Speeches, and Statements of the President, January 1 to November
22, 1963. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1964.
Report of the Director of the National Park Service to the Secretary of the Interior for the
Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1921, and the Travel Season 1921. Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1921.
Reports of the Director of the Mint Upon the Production of the Precious Metals in the
United States. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1880-1910.
Report of Explorations Across the Great Basin of the Territory of Utah for a Direct Wagon-
Route from Camp Floyd to Genoa, in Carson Valley, in 1859, by Captain J.H.
Simpson. Washington, Government Printing office, 1876.
Report of the Mineralogist of the State of Nevada for the Years 1869 and 1870. Carson
City, Charles L Perkins, State Printer, 1871.
Report of the Surveyor General and State Land Register of the State of Nevada For the
Years 1871 and 1872, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of
Nevada, Sixth Session.
Report of the Surveyor General and State Land Register of the State of Nevada For the
Years 1873 and 1874, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of
Nevada, Seventh Session.
Report of the Surveyor General and State Land Register of the State of Nevada For the
Years 1879 and 1880, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of
Nevada, 10th Session.
Report of the Surveyor General and State Land Register of the State of Nevada For the
Years 1889 and 1890, in Appendix to Journals of Senate and Assembly, State of
Nevada, 1891, 15th Session.
"Special Message to the Congress on Conservation, March 1, 1962," in Public Papers of
the Presidents of the United States, John F. Kennedy, Containing the Public
Messages, Speeches, and Statements of the President, January 1 to December 31,
1962. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1963.
676
"Special Message to the Congress on Conservation and Restoration of Natural Beauty,
February 8, 1965," in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Lyndon
B. Johnson, Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and Statements of the
President, 1965 (In Two Books), Book I - January 1 to May 31, 1965. Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1966.
"Special Message to the Congress Proposing Measures to Preserve America's Natural
Heritage, February 23, 1966," in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States,
Lyndon B. Johnson, Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and Statements of
the President, 1966 (In Two Books), Book I - January 1 to June 30, 1966.
Washington, Government Printing Office, 1967.
Stager, H.K. "A New Beryllium Deposit at the Mount Wheeler Mine, White Pine County,
Nevada," in Short Papers in the Geological Sciences, Geological Survey Research
1960, Geological Survey Professional Paper 400-B. Washington, Government Printing
Office, 1960.
State of Nevada. Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Water Resources -
Reconnaissance Series, Report 34, Water Resources Appraisal of the Snake Valley
Area Utah and Nevada, by James W. Wood and F. Eugene Rush. November 1965.
State of Nevada. Revised Laws, 1912. Carson City, 1912.
"Statement for Management, Lehman Caves National Monument," January 10, 1977.
"Statement for Management, Lehman Caves National Monument," Revised January 1984.
Stuart, E.E. Nevada's Mineral Resources. Carson City, State Printing Office, 1909.
"Title 43 - Public Lands: Interior, Public Land Order 1355," November 5, 1956, in Federal
Register, November 9, 1956.
Twenty-First Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to the Secretary of the
Interior, 1899-1900, Part IV. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1901.
U.S. Army. Engineer Department. Preliminary Report Concerning Explorations and Surveys
Principally In Nevada and Arizona . . . From Brigadier General A.A. Humphreys, Chief
of Engineers, Conducted Under the Immediate Direction of 1st Lieut. George M.
Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, 1871. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1872.
_. Preliminary Report Upon A Reconnaissance Through Southern and
Southeastern Nevada, Made In 1869, By First Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, Corps of
Engineers, U.S. Army, Assisted by First Lieut. D.W. Lockwood, Corps of Engineers,
U.S. Army. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1875.
Report Upon United States Geographical Surveys West of the One
Hundredth Meridian, in charge of Capt. Geo. M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, U.S.
Army, Under the Direction of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army. Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1875-1889. 8 vols.
U.S. Bureau of Mines. Minerals Yearbooks. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1933-
1969.
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Geodesy: The Transcontinental Triangulation and the
677
American Arc of the Parallel. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1900.
Triangulation and Primary Traverse for 1906, 1907, and 1908. Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1909.
U.S. Congress. House. Message from the President of the United States Transmitting an
Executive Order for Certain Regroupings, Consolidations, Transfers, and Abolitions
of Executive Agencies and Functions Thereof. H. Doc. 69, 73d Cong., 1st Sess.,
1933.
Reports of Explorations and Surveys, to Ascertain the Most Practicable
and Economical Route for a Railroad From the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean,
Made Under the Direction of the Secretary of War, in 1853-54. Vol. II, H.R. Ex. Doc.
91, 33d Cong., 3d Sess., 1855.
. . Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. Additions to the National
Wilderness Preservation System, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Public Lands
of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-
Ninth Congress, First Session, on H.R. 1686, H.R. 3302, H.R. 3304, Nevada
Wilderness Proposals, Hearing Held in Washington, D.C., October 10, 1985. Serial No.
99-19, Part I. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1986.
Designating Certain National Forest Lands in the State of
Nevada for Inclusion in the National Wilderness Preservation System, And for Other
Purposes. H. Rept. 99-427, Part 1, 99th Cong., 1st Sess., 1985.
Proposed Great Basin National Park, Nev., Submitted as an
accompanying part of the Communication from the Secretary of the Interior
Transmitting Reports on Studies of New Areas with Potential for Inclusion in the
National Park System. H. Doc. 95-264, 95th Cong., 1st Sess., 1977.
Proposed Great Basin National Park, Nev., Submitted as an
accompanying part of the Communication from the Secretary of the Interior
Transmitting Reports on Studies of New Areas with Potential for Inclusion in the
National Park System. H. Doc. 96-12, 96th Cong., 1st Sess., 1979.
Providing That the Secretary of the Interior Shall Investigate
and Report to the Congress As To the Advisability of Establishing a National Park
in Wheeler Peak- Lehman Caves Area of the Snake Range in Eastern Nevada. H.
Rept. 2526, 85th Cong., 2d Sess., 1958.
. Senate. Committee on Appropriations. Letter from the Secretary of War. S. Ex.
Doc. 65, 42d Cong., 2d Sess., 1872.
. . Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. Establishing the Great
Basin National Park and Miscellaneous Boundary Adjustments in the National Park
System, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Public Lands, Reserved Water and
Resource Conservation of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United
States Senate, Ninety-Ninth Congress, Second Session, on. . . . S. 2506, A Bill to
Establish a Great Basin National Park in the State of Nevada, and for other
purposes. . . . July 18, 1986. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1987.
_. Establishing the Great Basin National Park in the State of Nevada. S.
Rept. 99-458, 99th Cong., 2d Sess., 1986.
678
_. . Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. Great Basin National Park
Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Committee on Interior and
Insular Affairs, United States Senate, Eighty-Seventh Congress, First Session on S.
1760. . . . August 3, 1961. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1961.
_. . . Great Basin National Park In Nevada: Hearings Before the
Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs,
United States Senate, Eight-Sixth Congress, First Session on S. 2664. . . . Ely,
Nevada, December 5 and 7, 1959. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1960.
_. . . Great Basin National Park Nev. S. Rept. 983, 87th Cong., 1st
Sess., 1961.
U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Humboldt National Forest Land and
Resource Management Plan, Final Environmental Impact Statement. [1986.]
. . The Bristlecone Pine: Nature's Oldest Living Thing. 1983.
. . The Rise of Multiple-Use Management in the Intermountain West: A
History of Region 4 of the Forest Service, by Thomas G. Alexander. May 1 987.
Things You Need to Know When Searching for Gold in the National
Forests. August 1980.
. . Intermountain Region. Humboldt National Forest. 1959.
. . . National Forest Recreation in Nevada. [1964.]
. . Intermountain Region, in cooperation with Nevada Department of
Wildlife. A Program to Manage and Improve Fish and wildlife Habitats on the National
Forests in Nevada. 1979.
U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Fourteenth Census of the United
States: 1920. . . . Population: Nevada. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1921.
U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor. Bureau of the Census. Thirteenth Census of the
United States Taken In the Year 1910, Statistics for Nevada. Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1913.
U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management. Nevada's Economic Profile:
State Economic Structure. . . . Natural Resource Use. Reno, 1974.
_. Ely District Office. Schell Resource Area: Decision Summary and Record
of Decision. [1 983.]
. Nevada State Office. Taylor Grazing Act In Nevada, 1934-1984. Reno,
1984.
. Census Office. Statistics of the Population of the United States at the Tenth
Census (June 1, 1880). Washington, Government Printing Office, 1883.
. National Park Service. Centennial Edition, National Park Service Officials, March
1, 1972.
679
. . Proclamations and Orders Relating to the National Park Service Up to
January 1, 1945. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1947.
_. . Reconnaissance Survey, Great Basin, Nevada/California. January 1 980.
Study of Alternatives, Great Basin, Snake Range/Spring Valley Study
Area, Nevada. February 1981,
. . National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings. Theme XIX,
Conservation of Natural Resources. 1 963.
U.S. Forest Service. Humboldt National Forest. The Proposed Glacier Scenic Area. East
Ely, Nevada, 1959.
U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin 208. Descriptive Geology of Nevada South of the Fortieth
Parallel and Adjacent Portions of California, by Josiah Edward Spurr. Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1903.
.. Contributions to Economic Geology, 1902. Washington, Government Printing
Office, 1903.
. Geological Survey Bulletin 1356. Placer Gold Deposits of Nevada, by Maureen
G. Johnson. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1973.
. Geological Survey Professional Paper 610. Principal Gold-Producing Districts of
the United States, by A.H. Koschmann and M.H. Bergendahl. Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1968.
. Geological Survey Professional Paper 668. Hybrid Granitoid Rocks of the
Southern Snake Range, Nevada, by Donald E. Lee and Richard E. Van Loeman.
Washington, Government Printing Office, 1971.
Hydrology of Stock- Water Development in the Ely Grazing District, Nevada,
Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1475-L. Washington, Government Printing
Office, 1963.
. Mineral Resources of the United States. Washington, Government Printing Office,
1883-1924.
, and Nevada Bureau of Mines. Bulletin 65. Mineral and Water Resources of
Nevada. Reno, Mackay School of Mines, University of Nevada, 1964.
_, in cooperation with the Utah State Engineer and the Nevada State Engineer. Utah
State Engineer, Technical Publication No. 14, Water-Resources Appraisal of the Snake
Valley Area, Utah and Nevada, by James W. Wood and F. Eugene Rush. 1965.
U.S. War Department. War of the Rebellion Records. Series I, Vol. L, Part I (E.M. Balser
to the Adjutant of Fort Churchill, Nevada, October [20], 1861), p. 667.
University of Nevada. Agricultural Extension Service. Bulletin 77, Setting Up Taylor Grazing
Districts In Nevada, by Thomas E. Buckman. June 30, 1937.
680
Weeks, F.B. "Geology and Mineral Resources of the Osceola Mining District, White Pine
County, Nev.," in U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 340, Contributions to Economic
Geology, 1907, Part I - Metals and Nonmetals, Except Fuels. Washington,
Government Printing Office, 1908.
"Tungsten Deposits in the Snake Range, White Pine County, Eastern Nevada,"
in U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 340, Contributions to Economic Geology, 1907,
Part I - Metals and Nonmetals, Except Fuels. Washington, Government Printing
Office, 1908.
Whitebread, Donald H. and Lee, Donald E. "Geology of the Mount Wheeler Mine Area,
White Pine County, Nevada," in Short Papers in the Geologic and Hydrologic
Sciences, Articles 147-292, Geological Survey Research 1961, Geological Survey
Professional Paper 424-C. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1961.
Writer's Program of the Works Projects Administration. Nevada: A Guide to the Silver State.
Portland, Oregon, Binfords & Mort, 1940.
Government publications were among the most useful research materials in the preparation
of this study. The annual and biennial reports of various Nevada officials, many of which
were published in the Appendixes to the Journals of the Senate and Assembly of the State
of Nevada, provide considerable data on mining, agricultural, and socioeconomic
development in Nevada and White Pine County. The Annual Reports of the Superintendent
of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, as well as that agency's publications on Geodesy
and Triangulation and Primary Traverse, were the best sources on the Wheeler Peak
triangulation station. A wealth of data on mining development in the Snake Range was
found in the publications by the Nevada Bureau of Mines, Nevada Bureau of Mines and
Geology, Director of the Mint, U.S. Bureau of Mines, and U.S. Geological Survey. The
reports by Simpson and Wheeler detail their extensive military exploration activities in the
Snake Range vicinity. The publications by the Departments of Commerce and Commerce
and Labor provided valuable census data on White Pine County. The U.S. Department of
Agriculture and U.S. Forest Service publications, especially the study entitled Rise of
Multiple-Use Management in the Intermountain West, provided considerable data on Forest
Service management of the Snake Division of Nevada and Humboldt national forests. The
Congressional Record and the reports by the U.S. House Committee on Interior and Insular
Affairs and the U.S. Senate Committees on Energy and Natural Resources and Interior and
Insular Affairs provided valuable information on the movement to establish Great Basin
National Park. The published documents of the Department of the Interior aided in an
understanding of the activities of the Bureau of Land Management and the National Park
Service in Snake and Spring valleys and at Lehman Caves National Monument.
THESES AND DISSERTATIONS
Baugh, Alexander L. "John C. Fremont's Expeditions Into Utah: An Historical Analysis of
the Explorer's Contributions and Significance to the Region." Unpublished M.A. thesis,
Brigham Young University, 1986.
BeDunnah, Gary P. "A History of the Chinese in Nevada, 1855-1904." Unpublished M.A.
thesis, University of Nevada, Reno, 1966.
Bourne, John Michael. "Early Mining in Southwestern Utah and Southeastern Nevada, 1864-
1872: The Meadow Valley, Pahranagat, and Pioche Mining Rushes." Unpublished M.A.
thesis, University of Utah, 1973.
681
Cheel, Chester Walter. "Historic Development of Western Utah, Between 118 and 120
Degrees West Longitude, 1827-1861." Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Nevada,
Reno, 1939.
Elliott, Russell Richard. "The Early History of White Pine County, Nevada: 1865-1887."
Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Washington, 1938.
Hershiser, Beulah. "The Adjustment of the Boundaries of Nevada." Unpublished M.A. thesis,
University of Nevada, Reno, 1911.
King, Buster L. "The History of Lander County." Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of
Nevada, Reno, 1954.
Law, Wesley R. "Mormon Indian Missions - 1855." Unpublished M.S. thesis, Brigham Young
University, 1959.
Merrifield, Robert B. "Nevada, 1859-1881: The Impact of an Advanced Technological Society
Upon a Frontier Area." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1957.
Miller, Eunice. "The Timber Resources of Nevada." Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of
Nevada, Reno, 1924.
Ramsey, Bobby Gene. "Scientific Exploration and Discovery in the Great Basin From 1831-
1891." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Brigham Young University, 1972.
Short, Shelton Hardaway. "A History of the Livestock Industry Prior to 1900." Unpublished
M.A. thesis, University of Nevada, Reno, 1965.
Smith, Harold Truman. "New Deal Relief Programs in Nevada, 1933 to 1935." Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Nevada, Reno, 1972.
Snow, William James. "The Great Basin Before the Coming of the Mormons." Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1923.
Vitaliano, Charles Joseph. "Tungsten Deposits of the Snake Range, White Pine County
Nevada." Unpublished M.A. thesis, Columbia University, 1938.
Waite, Robert Starr. "The Proposed Great Basin National Park: A Geographical
Interpretation of the Southern Snake Range, Nevada." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
University of California, Los Angeles, 1974. Parts I and II.
Among the most useful theses and dissertations is that by Waite, hitherto the most
comprehensive geographical and historical work of its kind for the Snake Range. The study
by Elliott was particularly helpful for an understanding of White Pine County historical
development. The theses by BeDunnah, Hershiser, Miller, and Short provided data on
various facets of Nevada history, while the dissertations by Bourne and Merrifield were very
useful in terms of Nevada mining historical development.
TECHNICAL REPORTS
Aikens, C. Melvin. Indian Petroglyphs from White Pine County, Nevada, Miscellaneous
Paper Number 19. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, Number 99, 1978.
682
Baker, Denys M. "Early History of Snake Valley." n.d.
Clewlow, C. William, Jr. ed. Four Rock Art Studies. Socorro, New Mexico, Ballena Press,
1978.
Fowler, Don D. Final Report, Assessment of Cultural Resources of Lehman Caves National
Monument, White Pine County, Nevada. University of Nevada System, Desert
Research Institute, Human Systems Center, Technical Report No. 4, 1977.
. No. 2: Archeological Survey in Eastern Nevada, 1966, and No. 3: The Archeology
of Newark Cave, White Pine County, Nevada. University of Nevada System, Desert
Research Institute, Technical Report Series S-H, Social Sciences & Humanities,
Publications Nos. 2 and 3, 1968.
Inventory of Natural Landmarks of the Great Basin, by Vernon B. Bostick and Wesley E.
Niles, Department of Biological Sciences, and William A. McClellan, Edward H. Oakes,
John R. Wilbanks, Department of Geoscience, The University of Nevada, Las Vegas.
Compiled for the National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior.
August 20, 1975.
James, Steven R. ed. Prehistory, Ethnohistory, and History of Eastern Nevada: A Cultural
Resources Summary of the Elko and Ely Districts. Contract No. YA-553-CTO-1025
between the Bureau of Land Management and the University of Utah Archeological
Center, Reports of Investigations 81-5, April 1981.
Lehman Cave National Monument, Orchard Management Plan. July 1986.
Madsen, David B., and O'Connell, James F. eds. Man and Environment in the Great Basin,
SAA Papers No. 2. Washington, Society for American Archaeology, 1982.
Malouf, Carling. "The Gosiute Indians." Paper Number Three, in University of Utah,
Department of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers, Numbers 1-8. November 1950.
Office of George W. Malone, United States Senate, Nevada. "Resources Report, White Pine
County, Nevada, 1958."
Oulman, Steve. "Copper, Cows, and Crown Jewels: A Case Study Analyzing the Context
of Debate Surrounding Establishment of Great Basin National Park In Terms of
Regional History, National Park Politics, and Community Attitudes Toward Economic
Development." A Terminal Project presented to the Department of Planning, Public
Policy and Management, University of Oregon. August 1987.
Price, Barry A. "An Evaluation of Lower Osceola Historic Site (26 WP 1674), White Pine
County, Nevada." Prepared for Bureau of Land Management, Ely District, Under
Contract No. NV 040-CT5-001, August 1985.
. "Boom Towns and Copper Camps: An Archeological Survey of Historic Sites in
White Pine County, Nevada." Prepared for State of Nevada, Division of Historic
Preservation and Archeology, April 1987.
Rudy, Jack R. Archeological Survey of Western Utah. University of Utah, Department of
Anthropology, Anthropological Papers, Number 12, November 1953.
683
Stewart, Omer C. "The Western Shoshone of Nevada and the U.S. Government, 1863-
1950," in Selected Papers from the 14th Great Basin Anthropological Conference.
Socorro, New Mexico, Ballena Press, 1978.
Taylor, Dee Calderwood. The Garrison Site: A Report of Arch eo logical Excavations in Snake
Valley, Nevada-Utah. University of Utah, Department of Anthropology, Anthropological
Papers, No. 16, May 1954.
U.S. Bureau of Mines. "Flotation of Bertrandite and Phenacite From Mount Wheeler, Nev.,
Beryllium Ore, Report of Investigation 5875," by Richard Havens, W.I. Nissin, and J.B.
Rosenbaum. 1961.
. "Investigation of Tungsten Metals Corp. Deposits (Minerva Mining District), White
Pine County, Nev., Report of Investigation 4648," by E.W. Newman, Robert W.
Geeham, and Russell R. Trengove. March 1950.
. "Mineral Investigation of the Highland Ridge Roadless Area, White Pine County,
Nevada." MLA 68-83, by S. Don Brown. 1983.
"Mineral Investigation of the Wheeler Peak Roadless Area, White Pine County,
Nevada." MLA 56083, by Steven E. Kluender. 1983.
U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management. Cultural Resource Record
of the Moriah Planning Area, Ely District BLM, by Peggy Gaudy. May 1979.
Nevada Office. Current Status of CRM Archaeology in the Great Basin.
Cultural Resource Series, Monograph No. 9, by C. Melvin Aikens, ed., August 1986.
. National Park Service. Administrative History: Expansion of the National Park
Service in the 1930s, by Harlan D. Unrau and G. Frank Williss. September 1983.
. . "Field Investigation Report, Wheeler Peak Area, Nevada." August 1956.
. . Lehman Caves. . . . Its Human Story, by Keith A. Trexler. Updated
through 1975 by NPS staff, 1977.
. . Master Plan of Lehman Caves National Monument, December 1964.
. . Region Four. "Field Investigation Report, Lehman Caves-Wheeler Peak,
October 13 to 17, 1958, October 29 to November 13, 1958, Portion of Southern
Section of Snake Range, White Pine County, Nevada." February 1959.
Western Archeological and Conservation Center. An Archeological
Overview of Great Basin National Park, by Krista Deal. Publications in Anthropology
No. 49, 1988.
.. Archeological Survey and Site Assessment at Great Basin
National Park, by Susan J. Wells. Publications in Anthropology No. 53, 1989. (Draft.)
Western Archeological Center. Archeological Summaries for Great Basin
New Area Studies: Monitor Valley, Railroad Valley, Snake Range, Lassen-Applegate
Trail, by Yvonne G. Stewart, 1980.
684
Zeier, CD. The White Pine Power Project: Cultural Resource Considerations, Vol. I, A
Culture History Overview and Predictive Model for the Existence of Cultural Resources
in White Pine County, Nevada. Los Angeles, Dames and Moore, 1981.
Of the cited reports the most significant for the purposes of this study were those by
Gaudy, James, Oulman, and Trexler. The Gaudy and James studies provided considerable
data on the cultural history of the Snake Range area, while the Oulman and Trexler works
were among the best in terms of analyzing the movement to establish Great Basin National
Park and the historical development of Lehman Caves National Monument, respectively. The
studies by the U.S. Bureau of Mines contributed invaluable data on mining development in
the area, while those by the National Park Service chronicled that bureau's efforts in
establishing the national park.
INTERVIEWS
Personal interview with Denys Baker, Baker, Nevada, September 15, 1988. (Local rancher
and historian)
Personal interview with Wally Cuchine, Ely, Nevada, June 14, 1988. (White Pine Public
Museum)
Personal interview with Paul Demeule, Ely, Nevada, June 14, 1988. (U.S. Forest Service
Ely District Ranger)
Personal interview with Virginia Eldridge, Baker, Nevada, September 15, 1988. (Local
postmistress and long-time resident)
Personal interview with Owen Gonder, Garrison, Utah, September 17, 1988. (Local ranger
and long-time resident)
Personal interview with Joseph Griggs, Jr., Baker, Nevada, June 29, 1987. (Local resident
and long-time resident; now deceased)
Personal interview with Ronald H. Healey, Ely, Nevada, June 15, 1988. (White Pine County
Historical Society member and Ely photographer)
Personal interview with Barry A. Price, Ely, Nevada, June 30, 1 987. (Local archeologist and
researcher)
Personal interview with Sunny Roberts, Baker, Nevada, September 17, 1988. (Local long-
time resident)
Personal interview with John Zancanella, Ely, Nevada, June 30, 1987. (Bureau of Land
Management archeologist)
Telephone interview with Wesley Jordan, Baker, Nevada, September 17, 1988. (Local retired
rancher and long-time resident)
Telephone interview with Kathy A. Kaiser, Osceola, Nevada, September 17, 1988. (Local
resident and former U.S. Forest Service interpretive planner)
Telephone interview with Evy Seelinger, Carson City, Nevada, June 16, 1987. (Nevada
State Museum archivist)
685
MISCELLANEOUS
Ad Hoc Faculty Committee, University of Nevada, Reno. "An Evaluation of the Research
Possibilities of the Snake Range In Eastern Nevada. [1968.]
American Forestry Association. "The Forest Reservation Policy." ca. 1897.
Gould, Martha, and Kerschner, Joan, comps. "A Bibliography of Mining in Nevada and the
West: Books in the Nevada State Library Collection. Carson City, Public Services
Division, Nevada State Library, January 1974.
Letter, Denys Baker to author, January 28, 1990.
McLane, Alvin R. "Exploration and Early Mapping in Eastern Nevada.' Paper Presented at
the White Pine Public Library, Ely, Nevada. April 5, 1988.
The paper by McLane was helpful because of its analysis of the early history of the Snake
Range vicinity and the letter from Baker provided data on recent developments in Snake
and Spring valleys.
686
LIST OF REPOSITORIES CONSULTED OR WHERE RESEARCH WAS CONDUCTED
Baker, Nevada. Great Basin National Park (89311)
Telephone - 702-234-7331
Beltsville, Maryland. U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library (20705)
Telephone - 301-436-8221
Berkeley, California. University of California, Bancroft Library, Manuscripts Division (94720)
Telephone - 415-642-3781
Main Library (94720)
Telephone - 415-643-9999
Boulder, Colorado. University of Colorado, Norlin Library (80309)
Telephone - 303-492-8705
Carson City, Nevada. Nevada State Library and Archives, Division of Archives and Records,
101 S. Fall Street, Capitol Complex (89710)
Telephone - 702-885-5210
Nevada State Archives - Same as above
Nevada State Library, State Library Building (89710)
Telephone - 702-885-5130
Carson City, Nevada. Nevada State Museum, Capitol Complex (89710)
Telephone - 702-885-4810
Carson City, Nevada. State of Nevada, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources,
Division of Historic Preservation and Archeology, 201 S. Fall Street, Capitol Complex
(89710)
Telephone - 702-885-5138
Delta, Utah. Delta Public Library (84624)
Telephone - 801-864-4945
Denver, Colorado. Denver Public Library, 1357 Broadway (80203)
Telephone - 303-571-2000
Elko, Nevada. Elko County Library, 720 Court (89801)
Telephone - 702-738-3066
Elko, Nevada. Northeastern Nevada Museum, P.O. Box 2550 (89801)
Telephone - 702-738-3418
Elko, Nevada. U.S. Forest Service, Humboldt National Forest, Headquarters, Mountain City
Highway (89801)
Telephone - 702-738-5171
687
Ely, Nevada. U.S. Forest Service, Humboldt National Forest, Ely District Ranger Station,
350 East 8th (89301)
Telephone - 702-289-3031
Ely, Nevada. White Pine County Courthouse, Campton A venule (89301)
Telephone - 702-289-3333
Ely, Nevada. White Pine County Library, Campton Avenue (89301)
Telephone - 702-289-3737
Ely, Nevada. White Pine Public Museum, Inc., 2000 Aultman Street (89301)
Telephone - 702-289-4710
Fillmore, Utah. Fillmore Public Library (84631)
Telephone -801-743-5314
Golden, Colorado. Colorado School of Mines, Library, 1500 Illinois (80401)
Telephone - 303-273-3000
Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. National Park Service, Harpers Ferry Center, National Park
Service Archives (25425)
Telephone - 304-535-6493
Lakewood, Colorado. Bureau of Land Management, Denver Service Center, Library, Denver
Federal Center, Building 50, Denver (80225)
Telephone - 303-236-6649
Lakewood, Colorado. U.S. Geological Survey, Library, Denver Federal Center, Building 20,
Denver (80225)
Telephone - 303-236-1000
Lakewood, Colorado. National Archives and Records Administration, Denver Branch, Denver
Federal Center, Building 48, Denver (80225)
Telephone - 303-236-0818
Lakewood, Colorado. National Park Service, Denver Service Center, 12795 W. Alameda
Parkway, P.O. Box 25287, Denver (80225)
Technical Information Center - Telephone - 303-969-2130
Western Team - Telephone - 303-969-2200
Lakewood, Colorado. National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Regional Office, Library, 12795
W. Alameda Parkway, P.O. Box 25287, Denver (80225)
Telephone - 303-969-2715
Las Vegas, Nevada. University of Nevada, Las Vegas, James R. Dickinson Library, Special
Collections Department, 4505 Maryland Parkway (89154)
Telephone - 702-739-3252
Logan, Utah. Utah State University, Merrill Library. Department of Special Collections and
Archives, College Hill (84321)
Telephone - 801-750-2663
Los Angeles, California. Southwest Museum, Library, P.O. Box 128 (90042)
Telephone - 213-221-2164
688
Los Angeles, California. University of California, Los Angeles, 405 Hilgard Avenue (90024)
Powell Library - Telephone - 213-325-1201
University Research Library, Department of Special Collections - Telephone - 213-
825-4879
Ogden, Utah. U.S. Forest Service, Intermountain Regional Office, Federal Building, 324 25th
Street (84401)
Telephone - 801-625-5182
Provo, Utah. Brigham Young University, Harold B. Lee Library, Special Collections -
Manuscripts (84602)
Telephone - 801-374-1211
Reno, Nevada. Bureau of Land Management, Nevada State Office, 850 Harvard Way, P.O.
Box 12000 (89520)
Telephone - 702-784-5748
Reno, Nevada. Nevada Historical Society, 1650 N. Virginia Street (89503)
Telephone - 702-789-0190
Reno, Nevada. University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology (89557)
Telephone - 702-784-6691
Reno, Nevada. University of Nevada, Reno, University Library (89557)
Telephone - 702-885-5160
Reno, Nevada. University of Nevada System, Desert Research Institute, Social Sciences
Center, P.O. Box 60220 (89506)
Telephone - 702-673-7303
Reston, Virginia. U.S. Geological Survey, National Cartographic Information Center, 507
National Center (22092)
Telephone - 703-860-6045
Rockville, Maryland. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean
Service, Office of Charting and Geodetic Services (20852)
Telephone - 301-443-8356
Sacramento, California. California State Library, California Section, P.O. Box 942837 (94237)
Telephone - 916-445-4149
Salt Lake City, Utah. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Historical Department,
Church Library-Archives, 50 East North Temple Street (84150)
Telephone - 801-240-2745
Salt Lake City, Utah. Salt Lake City Public Library, 209 East Fifth South (84111)
Telephone - 801-363-5733
Salt Lake City, Utah. State of Utah, Department of Administrative Services, Division of
Archives and Records Service, Utah State Archives, State Capitol Archives Building
(84114)
Telephone - 801-533-5250
689
Salt Lake City, Utah. Department of Community and Economic Development, Division of
State History, Utah State Historical Society, 300 Rio Grande (84101)
Telephone - 801-533-5755
Salt Lake City, Utah. University of Utah, University Libraries, Marriott Library, Special
Collections Department (84112)
Telephone - 801-581-8863
San Bruno, California. National Archives and Records Administration, San Francisco Branch,
1000 Commodore Drive (94066)
Telephone - 415-876-9009
San Francisco, California. National Park Service, Western Regional Office, 450 Golden Gate
Avenue, Box 36063 (94102)
Park Historic Preservation - Telephone - 41 5-556-8376
San Marino, California. Huntington Library, Department of Manuscripts, 1151 Oxford Road
(91108)
Telephone - 818-405-2100
Tucson, Arizona. National Park Service, Western Archeological and Conservation Center,
P.O. Box 41058 (85717)
Telephone - 602-629-6501
Washington, D.C. U.S. Department of the Interior, C Street between 18th and 19th Streets,
Northwest (20240)
Law Library - Telephone - 202-343-4571
Natural Resources Library - Telephone 202-343-5815
Washington, D.C. Library of Congress, 1st Street Between East Capitol Street and
Independence Avenue, Southeast (20540)
Telephone - 202-287-5000
Washington, D.C. National Archives and Records Administration, Pennsylvania Avenue at
8th Street, Northwest (20408)
Telephone - 202-655-4000
Washington, D.C. National Park Service; Washington Office
History Division, Room 4209B, 1100 L Street, Northwest (20240) - Mail Stop 418
Telephone - 202-343-8163
Legislation Division, Room 3211, Main Interior Building, C Street Between 18th and
19th Streets, Northwest (20240) - Telephone - 202-343-5883
690
As the nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has
responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural and cultural
resources. This includes fostering wise use of our land and water resources, protecting our
fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and
historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The
department assesses our energy and mineral resources and works to ensure that their
development is in the best interests of all our people. The department also promotes the
goals of the Take Pride in America campaign by encouraging stewardship and citizen
responsibility for the public lands and promoting citizen participation in their care. The
department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and
for people who live in island territories under U.S. administration.
Publication services were provided by the graphics staff of the Denver Service Center.
NPS D-24, May 1990
As the nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has
responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural and cultural
resources. This includes fostering wise use of our land and water resources, protecting our
fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and
historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The
department assesses our energy and mineral resources and works to ensure that their
development is in the best interests of all our people. The department also promotes the
goals of the Take Pride in America campaign by encouraging stewardship and citizen
responsibility for the public lands and promoting citizen participation in their care. The
department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and
for people who live in island territories under U.S. administration.
Publication services were provided by the graphics staff of the Denver Service Center.
NPS D-24, May 1990
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